Alluvial fans as an effect of long-term man­landscape interactions and moist climatic
conditions: A case study from the Glubczyce Plateau, SW Poland
Edyta Zygmunt 
Department of Quaternary Palaeogeography and Palaeoecology, Faculty of Earth Science, University of Silesia, ul. Bedzinska 60, 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland
a b s t r a c ta r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Accepted 15 August 2007
Available online 5 February 2009
Keywords:
Alluvial fans
Deforestation
Prehistoric settlement
Land-use changes
Sudeten
Poland
At the mouth of periodically drained valleys in the loess Glubczyce Plateau (SW Poland), favorable conditions
for deposition of alluvial fan sediments occur, so these forms are very common in the investigated area. The
origin of the forms analyzed is related to long-term human­landscape interactions, because deforestation
and land-use changes started in the Neolithic, ca. 5.5 ka BC, causing intensification of soil erosion processes.
Willful and continuous interference by man into natural environment began at that time. Thus, human
impact is responsible for acceleration of runoff and mobilization of sediment which formed alluvial fans at
the mouths of episodically drained valleys. The objectives of this study are (1) to measure the morphological
and topographical characteristics of the fans, (2) to describe and analyze the inner structures of the alluvial
fans analyzed and (3) to date the alluvial fan deposition.
The alluvial fans are mainly formed of silty­clayey massive sediments. The gravel­sand layers occurring in
two exposures indicate the incision of the valleys in the older Pleistocene sediments underlying the loess
upland deposits and intensive phases of erosion in the course of which coarser material could have been
transported.
Radiocarbon dating of the peat filling the bottoms of the valleys and underlying the mineral deposits of the
fans indicates that sediment transfer from cultivated valley slopes and its deposition at the mouth of the
valleys was recorded in alluvial fan sediments by the Neolithic (6895140 BP). During this period, erosion
was probably intensified by a moister climate. Radiocarbon dating of organic layers, which were discovered
inside the sediments of two fans, show that the youngest dated stage of intensified erosion took place in
Early Medieval Times, when the Glubczyce Plateau was colonized again by Slavs after the "settlement
depression" during the Migration Period.
 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Alluvial fan deposits form part of fluvial sediment cascades and are
widely researched to record changes in sedimentation and catchment
condition. Numerous studies are concerned with inner structure,
morphology and hydrology of alluvial fans (e.g., Blissenbach, 1954;
Rachocki, 1981; Harvey, 1988; Blair and McPherson, 1992; Calvache
et al., 1997; Blair and McPherson, 1998). To date, the majority of
investigations of alluvial fans were conducted in mountain and foremountain
areas, where forms built of coarse-grained sediments, often
derived partly from debris flows, were analyzed (Bull, 1977; Brazier,
1987; Chamyal et al., 1997; Gómez-Villar and Garcia-Ruiz, 1997;
Sorriso-Valvo et al., 1998; Harvey et al., 1999a; Webb et al., 1999;
Gómez-Villar and Garcia-Ruiz, 2000; Anderson et al., 2000; Zanchetta
et al., 2004). It is assumed that particularly four factors control the
evolution of alluvial fans: intrinsic controls (e.g., Patton and Schumm,
1975; Scott and Erskine, 1994), changes of base level (Miall, 1992;
Harvey et al., 1999a), climatic variations (Wasson, 1977; Starkel, 1991;
Chamyal et al., 1997; Harvey et al., 1999b; Larue, 2002), land use
changes (Teisseyre, 1995; Coulthard, 2001; Coulthard et al., 2002;
Larue, 2002; Klimek, 2003; Zygmunt, 2004; De Moor and Verstraeten,
2008), or the relative roles of climate or human activities (Ballantyne,
1991; Chiverrell et al., 2007, 2008).
It seems as if alluvial fans received particular attention where they
form distinctive landforms. However, more subdued alluvial fans in
low-relief settings and humid regions carry a similar potential for the
study of past environmental change (e.g., Faulkner, 2002; Chiverrell et al.,
2007; De Moor and Verstraeten, 2008; Panin et al., 2009-this issue).
This holds true especially for the study of longer-term human impact
on catchment condition and fan development because settlement
activities often have been concentrated in humid basinal and
piedmont areas. In Poland, the Glubczyce Plateau (upper Odra basin,
Fig. 1) provides such a suitable study area because it has been one the
most attractive agricultural areas for millennia owing to its favorable
soil and climatic conditions. Here, long-term human­landscape
interactions resulted in the nearly complete clearing of pristine
forests. Prehistoric settlement concentrated mainly on the edges of
Geomorphology 108 (2009) 58­70
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E-mail address: edi.zygmunt@wp.pl.
0169-555X/$ ­ see front matter  2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2007.08.021
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journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/geomorph
Fig. 1. Location and geomorphological maps of the study areas (A-- Klisino, B-- Wronin, C-- Lubowice, D-- Borucin).
59E. Zygmunt / Geomorphology 108 (2009) 58­70
river terraces, in subslope zones and close to main and side river
valleys. This ensured constant access to water and protection against
the wind. The removal of the forest cover affected the stability of
valley slopes resulting in intensified soil erosion, particularly during
heavy rainfall and snow-melt floods. The material eroded from
deforested, cultivated slopes was transported to valley floors and
then partly deposited at valley mouths in the form of alluvial fans. In
this study the reconstruction of landscape evolution is attempted on
the basis of small alluvial fans deposited at the mouth of four
small valleys in the loess Glubczyce Plateau, south-western Poland
(Figs.1, 2). Periods of variable fan evolution are compared to the timing
of colonization and variable land-use intensity in the surveyed
catchments as well as to climate change during the Holocene.
2. Study area
The research was carried out on the loess Glubczyce Plateau
(520 km2
) in the Upper Odra Basin (Fig.1). The study area is delimited
to the south and west by the Eastern Sudeten Mountains and the
Carpathians. In the east and the north, it borders on the Silesian
Upland.
The area under review lies within the Silesian­Moravian structure
consisting of Precambrian and Paleozoic rocks (Stupnicka, 1989). In
the south-western part of the plateau, there is a zone formed by Lower
Carboniferous sedimentary flysch rocks (graywackes, sandstones and
mudstones). In the remaining part of the area, Tertiary sediments of
the Sudeten Foreland and the Carpathian Depression (mainly Miocene
clay) are found. The bedrock is covered by Vistulian loess.
The Glubczyce Plateau is an undulating denudation plain, dissected
by erosion in numerous places. It gently descends from the Sudeten
foothills towards the east and northeast, from 320 m a.s.l. to 220 m a.s.l.
The area is largely drained by river systems flowing into the Osobloga,
Psina and Troja rivers which flow parallel to the edge of the Sudeten
Mountains towards the east and northeast, and by the systems that
flow directly into the Odra. The plateau is dissected in many places by
episodically drained valleys, which accounts for its hilly relief. At some
places, relief reaches 40 to 50 m. In subslope zones, alluvial fans
accumulating on dry valley floors are common (Zygmunt, 2004). The
modern topography of this region is largely the result of erosion and
denudation transformations of the area formed during the Middle
Polish glaciation (Riss) and influenced by the bedrock structure
(Gilewska, 1999). The present morphology of the plateau is the result
of processes that occurred mainly during the Pleistocene and
Holocene. During the North Polish glaciation (Würm), the Glubczyce
Plateau lay in the periglacial zone where severe conditions prevailed.
In this period, a loess cover up to 9 m thick was formed as a result of
aeolian dust deposition (Jersak, 1991).
The average rainfall in the area ranges from 600 to 700 mm, of
which 200 to 250 mm occur in the winter half-year and 350 to
450 mm in the summer half-year. Most rainfall is recorded in July (100
to 120 mm in the northern part of the area and 80 to 100 mm in its
southern part). The least precipitation occurs in January (30 mm). As
in other areas of Poland, rivers in this region are characterized by a
nivo-pluvial regime. The highest water stages are observed in early
spring (snow-melt floods) and in summer, when they are caused by
torrential rains.
Owing to the loess cover, local soils are among the most valued
agricultural lands in Poland. In the loess parent material, Chernozems
as well as brown earths and loessive soils developed. The Chernozems
are now largely degraded. In the bottoms of smaller and larger river
valleys, alluvial soils formed (Bednarek and Prusinkiewicz, 1999). On
postglacial sediment and Carboniferous outcrops where the loess
cover was stripped, pseudo-podzolic and rusty soils can be found. In
some areas, regosols of limited agricultural value prevail, which are
usually covered by forests. However, due to favorable soil conditions
this region has very few forests and is mostly agricultural. Both cereals
and root plants are cultivated here: primarily wheat, sugar beet, rape
and barley. The length of the frost-free period is around 260 days.
The expansion of agriculture varied in space and time so that the
scale and tempo of long-term human­landscape interactions is
different in various regions of Poland. One of the first colonized Polish
areas by Neolithic farmers was the Glubczyce Plateau (SW Poland) as
it attracted the prehistoric tribes to settle there and utilize the land
(Kulczycka-Leciejewiczowa, 2004). One of the attractive factors was
the good soil developed upon the loess and loess-like sediments.
Because of the dense network of surface streams, this area also had a
good water supply. Very crucial to choosing the Glubczyce Plateau was
the close proximity to the Moravian Gate (tectonic depression
between The Sudeten Mountains and The Carpathians) which was
used by Neolithic communities moving to the north. Very careful
choice of the settlement sites and cultivated areas is evidence of the
knowledge of the early tribes about the natural environment. Because
of deforestation and changes of terrain utilization by the Neolithic
agricultural tribes in the Atlantic Period (ca. 6­5 ka BC), intensification
Fig. 2. The example of the Klisino alluvial fan (cf., Fig. 5) which was deposited at the mouth of episodically drained valley on the loess Glubczyce Plateau.
60 E. Zygmunt / Geomorphology 108 (2009) 58­70
of the erosional processes began. Since that time intentional and
continuous interference of humans with the natural environment
began. The Neolithic tribes were able to establish their permanent
settlements and cultivate areas adjoining the occupied territories,
leading to the degradation of the environment. A decrease of soil
infiltration capacities by human activity caused a significant increase
of sheet flow and acceleration of slope dissection and soil erosion.
These processes were exceptionally intense on the loess areas of the
Glubczyce Plateau so that the current relief of the area is partly the
result of its anthropogenic transformation, started in the Neolithic
times. Eroded material from deforested and cultivated slopes of the
valleys was deposited in the bottoms of the small valleys, and partly at
their mouths as alluvial fans. Thus, the inner structure of the fans
contains an important record of landscape evolution which was
controlled by agro-colonization of the loess plateau. However,
anthropogenic denudation cannot be analyzed without regard to
Holocene climatic changes. The periods of wetter climate, or heavy
rainfall episodes and intensive snow melts, could have intensified the
effects of human-induced erosion. The research conducted in the loess
areas shows that a single storm is able to deposit sediment layers
several centimeters in thickness (Fig. 3).
3. Materials and methods
To map alluvial fan landforms morphometric field-note taking and
precise leveling were carried out. Backhoe trenches and augering
(mechanized bucket auger, peat auger for retrieving sediment or peat
cores, respectively) served to study the internal sedimentary
structures and the stratigraphic context of underlying bedrock or
floodplain deposits (Fig. 4; see Fig. 5 for locations). Lithostratigraphic
recording followed the lithofacial coding of Miall (1978) and Zielinski
(1998). Here, lithofacies letters "I" (silts) and "L" (clays) were added in
order to adapt to subdued lithologic differences in a largely finegrained
depositional environment (for a conceptual background cf.
Houben, 2007). Geophysical resistivity measurements using multielectrode
equipment (Lund Imaging System
; Dalin, 1996) were
performed to estimate the thickness of peat underlying minerogenic
alluvial deposits. These measurements were used to trace changes of
physical parameters occurring in shallow layers (up to 10 m). Samples
collected during the field work were subjected to laboratory analyses.
In the case of mineral samples, grain-size analyses (by the sieve and
aerometric methods using a hydrometer) were performed.
The chronostratigraphy of depositional events was established by
combining lithostratigraphy and radiometric data. To extract suitable
dating materials and thus preclude age offset effect because of `old'
carbon, plant macrofossils of organic samples were determined at the
Museum of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. Radiometric dating by the 14
C
method was performed at the Kyiv Radiocarbon Laboratory, Ukraine.
For interpretation and comparison with other temporal information,
radiocarbon ages were calibrated using INTCAL04 (Reimer et al., 2004;
Fairbanks et al., 2005). Calibrated calendar dates are given as BC/AD.
Deriving a chronology of alluvial fan deposits with radiocarbon dating
of interbedded or underlying organic matter, however, further
requires paying attention to the specific sample age-context relations.
In brief, radiocarbon measurements yield a terminus ante quem age of
a stratum underlying the radiocarbon-sampled layer, but a terminus
post quem age of the sampled or overlying stratum (e.g., Bowman,
1990). These issues have recently been discussed by Chiverrell et al.
(2007) who take particular account of radiocarbon-derived chronostratigraphic
evidence of alluvial fan deposition. The stratigraphy of fan
development can be compared to archeological data on settlement
and farming periods on the Glubczyce Plateau. Archeological
information was provided by local archeologists and 1:25,000 AZP
maps (Archeologiczne Zdjecie Polski ­ Archeological Photographs
of Poland). These maps contain information about artifacts found
during surface research and excavations. Thus, the palaeogeographic
Fig. 3. Sediment layer with a thickness of 9 cm deposited during one rainstorm in July 2004 (research site: Borucin).
61E. Zygmunt / Geomorphology 108 (2009) 58­70
Fig. 4. Scheme of the research methods which were used to analyze the alluvial fans.
Fig. 5. Location of field researches within the alluvial fans.
62 E. Zygmunt / Geomorphology 108 (2009) 58­70
reconstruction of alluvial fan evolution is based on a synthesis of
sedimentological and archeological data.
4. Results
4.1. Morphological and topographical characteristics of the fans
The analyzed fans occupy surface areas from 0.012 km2
(research
site Klisino) to 0.18 km2
(research site Lubowice), and their drainage
areas range from 0.32 km2
(research site Klisino) to 9.39 km2
(research
site Wronin; Table 1). The drainage areas are elongated and rather
symmetrical (Fig. 6). Valley lengths range from 0.86 km (research site
Klisino) to 7.5 km (research site Wronin) and their gradients range
from 0.0046 m/m (research site Wronin) to 0.0334 m/m (research site
Klisino). The fan at Klisino exhibits the highest gradient (0.0202 m/m)
despite the fact that it has the smallest area and volume. The lowest
gradients were observed on the Wronin fan. The gradients of the fans
reach maximum values in their proximal parts (Klisino: 0.0348 m/m,
Borucin: 0.0181 m/m, Lubowice: 0.0110 m/m; Fig. 7). The Wronin
fan is an exception since its gradient is highest in its distal part
(0.0053 m/m). Fan area is an indirect indicator of volume. Catchment
area has no significant impact on fan size and volume. On the other
hand, the density of the river network within individual catchments
affects morphometric properties. Where episodically drained valleys
Table 1
Morphological and topographical characteristics of the alluvial fans and their drainage basins.
Study area A: Klisino B: Wronin C: Lubowice D: Borucin
Catchment area [km2
] 0.32 9.39 5.95 3.01
Alluvial fan area [km2
] 0.012 0.061 0.180 0.130
Fan/catchment area [%] 3.75 0.65 3.03 4.94
Valley gradient [m/m] 0.0334 0.0046 0.0132 0.0167
Alluvial fan gradient [m/m] Complete 0.0202 (100%) 0.0041 (100%) 0.0086 (100%) 0.0128 (100%)
Proximal part 0.0348 (172%) 0.0033 (80.49%) 0.0110 (127.91%) 0.0181 (141.41%)
Medial part 0.0136 (63.33%) 0.0037 (90.24%) 0.0069 (80.23%) 0.0105 (82.03%)
Distal part 0.0121 (59.90%) 0.0053 (129.27%) 0.0079 (91.86%) 0.0098 (76.56%)
Length of the valley [km] 0.86 7.50 4.00 3.39
Length of the alluvial fan [km] 0.196 0.406 0.735 0.457
Maximal width of the valley [km] 0.38 2.00 1.80 1.30
Maximal width of the alluvial fan [km] 0.11 0.37 0.40 0.39
Capacity of the alluvial fan [m3
] 13 271 86 304 405 143 191 706
Density of the valley network [m/km2
] 4 375 3 662 3 086 4 527
Fig. 6. Morphological map of the drainage basins of the analyzed alluvial fans.
63E. Zygmunt / Geomorphology 108 (2009) 58­70
Fig. 7. Longitudinal profiles of the fans and their gradients.
64E.Zygmunt/Geomorphology108(2009)58­70
are denser, "internal fans" form at the mouths of smaller tributary
valleys. Therefore, a significant amount of eroded sediment is retained
within the catchment. Conversely, less dense river networks supply
sediments to main valleys at higher rates and create larger alluvial
fans. For example, the fan at Lubowice, where the valley network
within the catchment is the least dense (3086 m/km2
), exhibits the
largest volume (405,143 m3
) and the second largest area (0.18 km2
;
Table 1).
4.2. Inner structures of the alluvial fan sediments
4.2.1. Klisino fan
Palaeobotanical analyses of peat, which underlies the mineral
sediments of the fan in Klisino, showed that the Osobloga valley was
colonized by typical plants connected with meadow swamps (Carex)
before fan formation started. The typical backswamp peat found here
is known as Bryalo­Parvicaricioni (Zygmunt, 2007). The Klisino fan is
the least thick and thickness of the alluvial fan sediments decreases to
the NW. The fan is formed mainly by fine-grained sediments (Fig. 8A)
and organic matter content ranges from 2.6% to 3.7%. The sedimentary
structure shows five horizontal layers varying in grain size and color.
In the lowermost layer 10 cm of dark-gray, massive silty-sandy clays
occur. Directly above this layer there are 20­25 cm of massive sandyclayey
silts. Textural and structural features of these sediments
indicate very low energy conditions. Above these sediments two
layers of laminated clayey-sandy silts are visible which are 40 and
30 cm thick. These layers have the same granulometric fabric but
colors are different. The lower sediments are more rust-white in color
and have more oxidized rootlets. The color of upper layers becomes
grayer and darker with depth. In these layers, isolated charcoal
Fig. 8. Internal structure of the fans.
65E. Zygmunt / Geomorphology 108 (2009) 58­70
fragments can be observed, but due to their small number it has not
been possible to date them by the 14
C method. These two layers
indicate an increase of energy in the depositional fan environment.
Traces of buried roots of water plants indicate rapid sedimentation.
The surface layer of the alluvial fan is of massive sandy­clayey silts
(1 m). Some quartz gravels, which give bleached horizontal layers
(about 3 cm), occur in 70 cm depth. The maximum clast diameter of
these gravels is 3 cm. Larger gravels (up to 9 cm) are visible only on
the fan surface. The presence of these gravels indicates higher stream
velocities.
4.2.2. Wronin fan
The maximum thickness of the Wronin fan is 2.4 m. Organic matter
content within its sediments ranges from 4.1% to 89.9%. Most organic
matter is present in clays that border the underlying peat (Fig. 8B).
The presence of buried pieces of tree, found in the bottom of the fan
sediments, probably shows a very early use of fire for forest clearing.
Sediments eroded from the slopes were deposited in the depression
where peat plants were developed (mainly Carex). In these conditions
Magnocaricioni peat was developed (Zygmunt, 2007). The massive
silty-clayey grain-size distribution of the alluvial fan, which prograded
on the peat, is almost homogeneous. At 2.05 m depth a 4 cm
horizon of massive silty-sandy clays is visible. Organic matter content
in this horizon is 18.7% and indicates a sudden high energy flow. At
1.32 m depth, some charcoal is visible. Thickness of the mineral
sediments (silty clays with variable color) decreases to the East.
The Wronin fan does not contain finer gravel and sand sediments.
Sandy gravels, which are derived from Pleistocene terraces, were
introduced to the fluvial system only in the upper and middle parts of
the catchments. The low valley gradient does not permit transportation
of these coarse sediments into lower parts of the catchment
where only fine grained sediments are visible.
4.2.3. Lubowice fan
The Lubowice fan shows the greatest thickness (4 m). It prograded
onto the alluvium of the Odra, represented by clayey-sandy silts
(Fig. 8C). These planar cross-stratified sediments form a point-bar.
Isolated gravels of 5 to 6 cm in diameter were also present in those
sediments. Thus, the alluvial fan was developed very close to the Oder
River channel and its progradation probably caused the channel to
shift to the East. The alluvial fan consists of fine sediments and organic
matter content less than 1.5%. Laminated silts as well as silty and
sandy deposits with a massive structure prevail within the fan
deposits. Gravel additions of up to 5 cm in diameter are also common
(Fig. 9). Additionally, sandy and silty gravels with a massive structure
form two continuous layers (with a thickness of 15 cm and 4 cm,
respectively) that interbed into the laminated clayey-sandy silts.
Some gravels forming those two layers exceed 10 cm in diameter
(cobbles). The gravels consist mostly of local Sudeten gravel.
Scandinavian material (Rapakivi granite) is also represented here.
This kind of petrographic composition is typical for older Pleistocene
terrace sediments which occur on the edge of the Oder valley. Their
presence inside the alluvial fan indicates very intensive erosion in the
valley and a high-energy depositional area. Transport of gravels was
possible because of the higher valley gradient (Table 1). At the depth of
80 cm, a thin organic horizon can be observed which enabled the
dating of the deposition of sediments that lie above it.
4.2.4. Borucin fan
The alluvial fan at Borucin prograded on the Alnioni peat which
was developed in a swamp with Alnus glutinosae (Psina valley, cf.
Zygmunt et al., 2006). During floods this depression was a backswamp
where peats developed. After deforestation soil erosion was more
intense so the alluvial fan started prograding onto the peat.
Geophysical analyses have demonstrated that the thickness of the
peat underlying the mineral deposits of the fan is around 4 m. The
maximum thickness of the Borucin fan is 2.1 m. Organic matter
content reaches 8.3%. The fan is composed of seven layers which can
be linked to periods of different soil erosion intensity. Directly on the
peat lies dark gray massive silty clays (80­90 cm; Fig. 8D). On these
sediments there are about 50 cm gray-rust massive sandy-silty clays.
The next layer (0.9­1.0 m) upward is composed by light-gray-brown
massive silty clays. Above, a 2 cm layer of very dark organic material
with small charcoals is found. It is buried by white silty­sandy clays,
and the white color is being connected with pedological processes
(eluviation). These sediments are covered by massive silty clays
(15 cm) and massive silty-sandy clays (about 1.2 m).
4.3. Dating results
4.3.1. Klisino fan
The radiocarbon dates yielded by the uppermost layer of the peat
filling the floor of the Osobloga valley (which is around 1 km wide)
and underlying the mineral deposits of the Klisino fan suggest that
this fan was the first of the four fans to form. The accumulation of peat
at the base of the fan was interrupted at the very beginning of the
Neolithic Age, at 6895140 BP (Fig. 8A). The maximum range of the
sediments deposited in the distal part of the fan was dated to the
Roman period at 192080 BP (Fig. 5A). Numerous artifacts left by
subsequent farming and herding tribes demonstrate that settlement
in this area was continuous (Table 2).
4.3.2. Wronin fan
The Wronin fan is the youngest formation analyzed. In the
proximal part of the fan, its deposits buried the peat some time
after 172070 BP (Fig. 8B), while in the distal part this occurred after
64070 BP (Fig. 4B). Radiocarbon dating results confirm the
archeological data pointing to intensive Medieval settlement in the
Osobloga valley. Among the evidence for intensive settlement in this
area in the Middle Ages are the remains of a big Early Medieval
stronghold measuring 200 by 240 m (Fig. 1B). This stronghold is
located 1.5 km to the southeast of the fan analyzed. The relatively low
density of the permanent stream network limited opportunities for
extended human presence and the foundation of permanent settlements
in the area. Archeological data provide evidence for settlement
in prehistoric times, but they only point to a temporary human
presence. The catchments bordering on the ones analyzed from the
north and the south were settled by larger numbers of humans and in
a more permanent manner. Within the fan catchment, close to its
southern border, two flint workshops existed, but the catchment
adjacent to the south was colonized more permanently. It is supposed
that Bronze Age human activities have been recorded in small within-Fig. 9. Layer of sandy­silty gravels in the alluvial fan sediments (research site Lubowice).
66 E. Zygmunt / Geomorphology 108 (2009) 58­70
catchment fans. Only in the Middle Ages did human activities lead to
the deposition of a more pronounced alluvial fan at the mouth of the
main valley.
4.3.3. Lubowice fan
Absolute radiocarbon dating of the Lubowice fan was not possible
because of low organic matter content and its progradation onto
minerogenic alluvium of the Odra river (Fig. 8C). Based on archeological
data, it may also be supposed that the Lubowice fan started to
prograde during the Neolithic Age. Numerous artifacts and settlement
traces found within the fan catchment and dated to the Neolithic also
provide evidence for settlement in this area and the deforestation of
the fan catchment. Those data have been collected using the AZP
maps. Additionally, the presence of an organic horizon at a depth of
around 0.8 m made it possible to determine the time when
accumulation last occurred within the fan. The erosion stage during
which the uppermost layer of the fan was deposited took place in the
Early Middle Ages (1210100 BP, 117570 BP, 114070 BP, Fig. 8C).
An indirect method of dating of the long term man­landscape interactions
is the occurrence of (1) strongholds (area fortified with wooden
palisades) and (2) archeological artifacts, which indicate a longer
presence of humans within the fan drainage area and nearby.
To summarize, based on archeological finds it can be concluded
that the exceptionally intensive deforestation of the fan drainage area
at Lubowice occurred during the Bronze Age. This is confirmed by the
stronghold of Lusitian culture (VIII/IX BC), which is situated near the
alluvial fan (Figs. 1C, 6C). The preserved wooden stronghold (fort)
embankments are about 1.5 km in length which is seen to be
indicative of widespread deforestation at that time.
4.3.4. Borucin fan
The Borucin fan also prograded onto the peat filling the bottom of
the Psina valley (Fig. 8D). The fact that this research site yielded the
most radiocarbon dates allowed the probable fan accumulation stages
to be determined (Fig. 10). The fan started prograding in the Late
Neolithic (434080 BP; Fig. 10A). The oldest dated stage of its
development dates back to 393070 BP (Fig. 10B). The next stage
dates to the Neolithic and the beginning of the Bronze Age (365070
Table 2
Results of radiocarbon datings, their calibration and correlation with the archaeological past.
Research site Number Age 14
C (BP) Calibrated age (BC/AD) Age/period Culture
1 2
Klisino 1 (Ki 13115) 689580 BP 5878­5854 cal BC (0,105879)
5850­5714 cal BC (0, 894121)
5976­5949 cal BC (0,041686)
5919­5643 cal BC (0,958314)
Neolithic Band pottery
2 (Ki 13114) 1920140 BP 92­67 cal BC (0,049219)
63 cal BC­254 cal AD (0,950781)
351­298 cal BC (0,022438)
228­222 cal BC (0,001694)
210 cal BC­416 cal AD (0,975868)
Iron /Roman Przeworsk
Wronin 1 (Ki 13112) 172070 BP 243­402 cal AD (1, ) 130­438 cal AD (0,965936)
487­531 cal AD (0,034064)
Iron/Roman Przeworsk
2 (Ki 13111) 158070 BP 412­555 cal AD (1, ) 264­275 cal AD (0,008041)
333­623 cal AD (0,991217)
630­630 cal AD (0,000742)
Iron/Roman Przeworsk
3 (Ki 13110) 102070 BP 899­918 c l AD (0,092484)
963­1049 cal AD (0,63325)
1084­1124 cal AD (0,20698)
1137­1151 cal AD (0,067285)
880­1187 al AD (0,99652)
1199­1206 cal AD (0,00348)
Iron/Early Medieval,
Medieval
Slavs
4 (Ki 13113) 64070 BP 1285­1326 cal AD (0,441828)
1343­1394 cal AD (0,558172)
1262­1424 cal AD (1, ) Medieval Slavs
Lubowice 1 (Ki 11897) 1210100 BP 688­754 cal AD (0,294788)
757­894 cal AD (0,677902)
927­934 cal AD (0,02731)
654­998 cal AD (0,990508)
1003­1013 cal AD (0,009492)
Iron/Early Medieval Slavs
2 (Ki 11899) 117570 BP 774­900 cal AD (0,765988)
918­964 cal AD (0,234012)
687­989 cal AD (1, ) Medieval Slavs
3 (Ki 11898) 114070 BP 782­789 cal AD (0,031345)
811­845 cal AD (0,178553)
856­981 cal AD (0,790102)
695­698 al AD (0,003587)
708­747 cal AD (0,049798)
765­1021 cal AD (0,946615)
Medieval Slavs
Borucin 1 434080 BP 3090­3044 cal BC (0,175984)
3035­2888 cal BC (0,824016)
3335­3210 cal BC (0,118158)
3192­3151 cal BC (0,026819)
3138­2861 cal BC (0,816103)
2808­2756 cal BC (0,031916)
2719­2705 cal BC (0,007003)
Eneolithic Corded ware
2 (Ki 11892) 393070 BP 2558­2554 cal BC (0,011504)
2550­2537 cal BC (0,057192)
2491­2333 cal BC (0,82497)
2325­2300 cal BC (0,106334)
2618­2609 cal BC (0,005006)
2598­2594 cal BC (0,001538)
2583­2202 cal BC (0,993455)
Bronze Bell Beaker
3 365070 BP 2135­2069 cal BC (0,316462)
2064­1938 cal BC (0,683538)
2273­2257 cal BC (0,007753)
2207­1875 cal BC (0,967119)
1843­1817 cal BC (0,014734)
1798­1779 cal BC (0,010395)
Bronze Bell Beaker,
New Cerekwia
4 198080 BP 88­76 cal BC (0,046159)
56 cal BC­93 cal AD (0,848015)
97­125 cal AD (0,105826)
179 cal BC­220 cal AD (1, ) Iron/La Tene, Roman Celtic, Przeworsk
5 167070 BP 256­303 cal AD (0,221591)
315­433 cal AD (0,729964)
494­505 cal AD (0,041148)
523­526 cal AD (0,007297)
218­553 cal AD (1, ) Iron/Roman, Migration Przeworsk
6 151060 BP 439­487 cal AD (0,292278
531­615 cal AD (0,707722)
427­644 cal AD (1, ) Iron/Migration ­
7 (Ki 11891) 111070 BP 832­836 al AD (0,012355)
869­1017 cal AD (0,987645)
712­745 al AD (0,022479)
767­1038 cal AD (0,977521)
Medieval Slavs
67E. Zygmunt / Geomorphology 108 (2009) 58­70
BP; Fig. 10C). Initially, the fan developed in a north-westerly direction
and along the valley axis (198080 BP; Fig. 10D). Its maximum
progradation occurred during the Late Roman Period (167070 BP;
Fig.10E). Due to an increase in the level of deposition in the axial zone,
the fan started to prograde in a north-easterly direction (151060 BP;
Fig. 10F). The last dated stage of fan accumulation can be described as
a convex deposit. The stage at which this accumulation took place was
determined on the basis of the dating of the organic layer underlying
the clayey sediment forming this accretion (Fig. 8D); it was dated to
the Early Middle Ages (111070 BP; Fig. 10G). This accumulation was
related to the renewed agricultural colonization of the area by Slavs in
the Early Medieval period (Fig. 11).
5. Conclusions
Detailed research carried out in the four alluvial fans and the
analysis of archival data show that the processes of intensive
deforestation and land cultivation on the loess Glubczyce Plateau
started in the Early Neolithic. Deforestation of the undulating plateau
increased the surface runoff (Wasson, 1996; Ayala and French, 2003;
Lang et al., 2003). Acceleration of soil erosion processes and alluvial
fan progradation seem to have been triggered mainly by the intensity
of land use. The environmental effects of land cultivation were
superimposed on the changes induced by climate (especially wet
periods). Heavy local rainstorms could have accelerated accretion of
the alluvial fans too.
The Glubczyce Plateau was colonized by farmers from the south
very early so human-induced soil erosion started earlier than in the
other loess regions in Poland. The first farmers, which colonized this
area, belonged to the Bandkeramik culture. A first phase of permanent
settlements was also visible on the Sudeten and Carpathian foreland
(Kaczanowski and Kozlowski, 1998). All of these areas are covered by
loess and thus favorable for agriculture. Thus, much of the depositional
stratigraphy of the downstream alluvial fans consists of
relatively fine-grained alluvium because of human-induced erosion
of loess-derived soils on catchment hillslopes. Accordingly, different
than alluvial fans in steeper catchments with coarser-grained subsurface
lithologies (e.g., Harvey, 1992; Chiverrell et al., 2008), it is
reasonable to assume that vertical accretion from suspension flows
during flood events significantly contributed to alluvial-fan formation.
This may also be the reason for the relatively subdued landform of
some of the investigated alluvial fans (cf., Borucin fan, Fig. 5D).
The earliest evidence of human-induced soil erosion on the
Glubczyce Plateau can be dated to 689580 BP (the Klisino fan).
Early soil erosion on this area was also described by Klimek et al.
(2006). Organic material which underlies colluvium in Biala is dated
to at least 665090 BP. Anthropogenic denudation of the southeastern
Polish loess is mainly connected with activity of Globular Amphora
Culture (Kruk, 1981; Snieszko, 1995; Kruk et al., 1996). This phase of
soil erosion was probably connected with a phase of precipitation
increase (Starkel, 1988, 1989). Within the northern foreland of
Carpathians valley alluviation caused by deforestation did not begin
until the Early Medieval Times (Klimek et al., 2006). An increase of
human impact on the loess areas in Poland was also visible in X­XI
and XI­VVII centuries AD (Snieszko, 1985, 1995). Kukulak (2003)
described rapid changes in alluviation of the mid-mountain San
catchment (SE Poland) which was connected with the XV­XVI
centuries phase of colonization. Intensive deforestation and cultivated
deforested areas caused gully erosion in the area (Buraczynski, 1997;
Schmitt et al., 2006). The first phase of gully development was at the
turn of XV/XVI centuries and the second one in the beginning of XX
century.
Among the fans analyzed three prograded onto peats that filled
valley bottoms (research sites Borucin, Lubowice, Wronin). The
Lubowice fan prograded onto Odra river alluvium. The radiocarbon
dating of the peat filling the bottoms of the valleys and underlying the
fan sediments attests that the analyzed fans started to cover the
organic sediments in the Neolithic, 6895140 BP (research site
Klisino; Fig. 11). The increasingly wet climate which occurred in
Europe in the mid-Atlantic period probably contributed to the
development of this formation (Macklin et al., 2006). At the same
time, a phase of increased fluvial activity of Polish rivers could also be
observed (Starkel et al., 2006). The Borucin fan started to accumulate
in the Neolithic as well (434080 BP). Indirect conclusions may be
Fig.10. Phases of the alluvial fan progradation in Borucin (A­G: explanation in the text).
68 E. Zygmunt / Geomorphology 108 (2009) 58­70
drawn that the Lubowice fan also started to develop at the time when
the Glubczyce Plateau was initially colonized by farming and herding
tribes. This is evidenced by numerous artifacts and settlement traces
found in the catchment of the valley that supplied the sediment
forming the fan. However, the absence of organic matter prevents
direct dating of this formation. The Wronin fan is the youngest among
the formations analyzed. It only started to prograde in the Middle Ages
(172070 BP). The intensive erosion phase in the Early Middle Ages is
reflected by the sediments forming three of the fans analyzed. At this
time, the accumulation can be discerned in the shape of two fans as a
convex deposit (research site Borucin: 111070 BP; research site
Lubowice: 1210100 BP, 117570 BP, 114070 BP).
The findings of alluvial fan analysis confirm archeological results.
Continuous settlement has been present on the Glubczyce Plateau
since the Neolithic Age. During the Migration Period, the area was
depopulated and the forest cover partly regenerated; this stage
lasted for about 200 years (Kaczanowski and Kozlowski, 1998). In
the Early Middle Ages, intensive Slav settlement and cultivation took
place in the area. Since archeological research is still incomplete
in many areas, the reconstruction of long-term man­landscape
interactions based on the analysis of alluvial fan sediments may
provide a helpful complement. The dating of the progradation of
fans may also be used to validate archeological data concerning the
time when individual areas were settled by farming and herding
communities.
Acknowledgements
This research has been funded by grant No. KBN PB-508/NoZ/2003
from the State Committee for Scientific Research. The author wishes to
thank the supervisor of her doctoral thesis, Professor K. Klimek, for his
cooperation in the work related to the grant as well as the warmth and
trust shown. I would also like to thank P. Owczarek, Ph. D. for his
support and assistance in field work provided. Thanks go to J. Herget
and A. Lang for helpful comments, and P. Houben for assistance with
the manuscript. Special thanks go to S.W. Trimble for proofreading.
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