Alice Navratilová PriF http://www.email.cz/getAttachment?session=u%D4%839%60%9C%94%AF%034W%C9n%F7%8B%AF%F6%3EeQ%15%A7ZU%81 %A6%E5%99e%F0%F9%BCw%FFS%01%FA%8D%D5%DE%FF%B8b%06y%B0r5%21o%FDZCm%D1%B0%D6J%B7%E8%9E%C9%8E%40%C9%CA %B4%01%8F%8A%81%23%28q%86Co%D7%AF8%1C-%8C%26K%92J%BC%14%E9%AE%EA%D3k%D4X%ED%E9%23f%C5%DFUP%C1%E2WG% 3Fk%D2%F6 OPVK Inovace výuky geografických studijních oborů, CZ.1.07/2.2.00/15.0222 Geographies of Development – the structure of the course I 1)Conceptualising development a)Questioning development b)Understanding colonialism c)Theories and strategies of development d)Globalization, development and underdevelopment OPVK Inovace výuky geografických studijních oborů, CZ.1.07/2.2.00/15.0222 Geographies of Development – the structure of the course II ž2) Development in practice žA) methodologies of development – project cycle management žLogical framework analysis žB) participatory development žC) institutions of development ž OPVK Inovace výuky geografických studijních oborů, CZ.1.07/2.2.00/15.0222 Geographies of Development – the structure of the course III ž3) Spaces of development žA) Local social movements and development žB) Global civil society and development žC) Urban spaces žD) Rural spaces OPVK Inovace výuky geografických studijních oborů, CZ.1.07/2.2.00/15.0222 Growth of Inequalities QUESTIONING DEVELOPMENT žOverviews of different ways of development definition žQuantitative counts and qualitative conception of development žFocus on socio-economic improvements since 70s, but net increase in inequalities The nature of development Thomas (2001) žDifferent usages of ´development´ ž1) development as fundamental or structural change žDevelopment as intervention and action aimed at improvement žDevelopment as the platform for improvement encompassing changes that will facilitate development in the future ž The ´essence´ of development žDifferent views on development žWhat is your definition of development? žA) what constitutes development? žB) who participates in development? žC) which institutions promote development? ž OPVK Inovace výuky geografických studijních oborů, CZ.1.07/2.2.00/15.0222 Positive interpretation of development žSUPPORTERS OF DEVELOPMENT: žbrings economic growth žnational progress žmodernisation along Western lines OPVK Inovace výuky geografických studijních oborů, CZ.1.07/2.2.00/15.0222 Positive connotation wt development žImproves the provision of basic needs žCan help create sustainable growth žImproves governance ž(Potter et al., 2008:5) ž Alternative interpretations of development žCritiques of development : žDevelopment is a dependent and subordinate process žDevelopment creates and deepens spatial inequalities ž OPVK Inovace výuky geografických studijních oborů, CZ.1.07/2.2.00/15.0222 Alternative interpretations of development §D. undermines local cultures and values §D. perpetuates poverty and poor working and living conditions ž Critiques of development §D. is environmentally unsustainable §D. infringes human rights and undermines democracy (Potter et al., 2008:5) ž Amartya Sen žDevelopment as Freedom (2000) žThemes – poverty, famine, capabilities, inequality, democracy žDevelopment consists of the removal of various types of unfreedoms that leave people with littel choice and little opportunity for exersicing their reasoned agency ž Development as freedom žHuman freedom tend to promote freedoms of other kinds: many different interconnections between distinct instrumental freedoms žEconomic and political freedoms help to reinforce one another ž(Although some argue the opposite) ž. Development as Freedom žSocial opportunites in the fields of heath care and education – which require public action – complement individual opporutinites for economic and political participation. žThus – intrinsic importance of human freedoms Classification of Development Theory ž1) Modernisation School ž2) Dependency School ž3) Neo-liberalism and current New Institutional Economics ž4) human development (basic needs approach, rigths-based approach, development as freedom, MDGs) ž Classification of Development Theory ž5) alternative development žAlternative to mainstream development žGlobal civil society žFluid category – what was in 70s alternative – currently mainstream (sustainable development, WED) ž6) Post-development žSaid, Escobar, Sachs, post-structuralist discoursive analysis of development Euro-centricity of development – basic criticism žIdeological biases žLack of sensitivity to cultural variation žSetting of ethical norms ž ž OPVK Inovace výuky geografických studijních oborů, CZ.1.07/2.2.00/15.0222 Euro-centricity of development – basic criticism §Stereotyping of other people §Tendency towards deterministic formulations §Dominance of ´male´ narratives – vs. subaltern voices §(Potter et al., 2008:5) ž Euro-centricity of development – basic criticism žTendency towards reductionism žTendency towards the building of grand theories žunderlying tones of racial superiority žUnilinearity žUniversalism OPVK Inovace výuky geografických studijních oborů, CZ.1.07/2.2.00/15.0222 Mainstream economics žwestern economics – logically closed system žAssumptions are substituted for reality žMainstream economics is neither values-free nor tolerant of non-Western cultures- ž OPVK Inovace výuky geografických studijních oborů, CZ.1.07/2.2.00/15.0222 Historical embededdness of inequalities Colonialism - žDirect political control and administration of an overseas territory by a foreign state žColonial mission to develop colonial peoples - concept of trusteeshep žCowen, Shenton - Doctrines of Development ž ž ž colonialism ž- subjugation by physical and psychological force of one culture by another – ža colonizing power – through military conquest of territory . Two types of colonization žA) colonies of settlement – which other eliminated indigenous people (Spanish destruction of the Aztec and Inca civilizations žB) colonies of rule – colonial administrators reorganize existing cultures to facilitate their exploitation (British use of local zamindars to rule the Indian subcontintent) Bodley: Victims of Progress Historical dimension of development žExpansion of the European colonial system žColonialism – institutions and structures of colonialism had profound effect on the colonized societies žKey factor – relations between local elites and the center power, nationalism – Benedict Anderson žEnlightenment interpretation of primitive societies – ideal of innocence žWho inspired the approach? žMEHMET, O. (1999): Westernizing the Third World, The Eurocentricity of economic development theories, Routledge, London. ž Processes of decolonisation Types of colonial rule žSpanish, portugese – did not bring about economic growth for the colonizing powers žNetherlands and United Kingdom profited ž Types of colonial rule žBritish empire – administrators from England – to colonies žFrench – tried to win over the domestic elite, assimilation via education system. Reorganization of colonial labour žNon-European societies were fundamentally transformed by the loss of their resources and craft tradition as their people became colonial subject Reorganization of colonial labour ž(labouring in mines, fields, plantations under regime of explorative production žA great deal of colonial labor was channeled away from reproducing local, non Europen culture and into sustaintin distant European urban and industrial needs. ž Political changes in colonies ž19th century colonialism became more bureaucratic and centrally organized žLate 19th century – colonial administrations in Asia and Africa were self-financing system, ž Political changes in colonies žPutting to use the loaylty of local princes and chiefs, bought wt titles, land and tax-farming privileges. žColonal subjects were forces into cash cropping to pay the taxes that finances the whole colonial enterprise ž Changed role division žIncorporation of male colonial subjects into cash cropping žDisruption of formely comlementary gender roles of men and women in traditional cultures ž Changed role division žWomen´s traditional land-user rights were often displaced by new system of private property žIncreasing pressure on good prodution, normally the responsibiltiy of women ž Changed role division žKenya – the former interdependence between men and women in Kikuyu culture was fragmented – peasants´s land confiscated – žmen migrated to work on European farms, ž reduction of women´s control over the resources and lowering their status, wealth and authority. Development as spread of Modernity žHall and Gieben (1) The Reason and its derivative notion of rationality: ž“the primacy of reason and rationality as ways of organizing knowledge, tempered by experience and experiment” (Hall, Gieben, 2000: 21). ž. Development as spread of Modernity ž(2) Empiricism represents a fundamental shift from believing into sensing : ž“the idea that all thought and knowledge about natural and social world is based upon empirical facts, things that all human beings can apprehend through their sense organs” (ibid.). Development as spread of Modernity ž(3) Science as the driving force fuelling the modernization machine. “Scientific knowledge, based upon the experimental method as developed in the scientific žrevolution of the seventeenth century, was the key to expanding all human knowledge1 (ibid Development as spread of Modernity ž žscience at the onset of the modernization project žwas believed to provide us with unequivocal and indisputable knowledge ž Feminist perspective on science ž žBraidotti et al. (1994) write of Western science as of the motor of the crisis. ž Braidotti (1994:10) points out to the role of science that assumes ´totalizing control over reality´. Feminist perspective on science ž“Science with its claims to objective truth plays an important role in the way we think and act, in the way the modern societies žfunction” (Braidotti et al, 1994: 9, emphasis added). žVandana Shiva (Post-development Reader, Rahmena, ž Development as spread of Modernity ž(4) Universalism, “The concept that reason and science could be applied to any and every situation and that their principles were the same in every situation. žScience, in particular, produces general laws which govern the entire universe, without exception” (Hall, 2001: 21; emphasis added Rostow - The stages of economic growth (1960). žthe modernist notion of common denominator or a yardstick against which all society can be ordered, compared and subsequently classified: “It is possible to identify allsocieties, in their economic dimensions, as lying within one of five categories: ž Stages of economic growth žthe traditional society, the preconditions for take-off, the take-off, the drive to maturity, and the age of high mass-consumption” (Rostow, 1960: 4). Rostow žalso offered a telling example of the status and importance of science in the modernistic project. Rostow - mindset žThe watershed is the Newtonian physics and the universe composed of knowledgeable laws that were to be discovered by humans. Thus Rostow writes: “A traditional society is (…) based on pre-Newtonian science and technology, and on pre-Newtonian attitudes towards the physical world. Newton is here used as a symbol for that watershed in history when men came widely to believe that the external world was subject to a few knowable laws, and žwas systematically capable of productive manipulation” (ibid.). ž(5) Progress represents the idea that the natural žand social conditions of human beings could be improved, by the application of žscience and reason, and would result in an ever-increasing level of happiness žand well-being” (Hall, 2000: 21). “The founding concepts of social science were intimately bound up with the Enlightenment’s The concept of progress žintrinsically connected with science as science offers the possibilities of control. žDuring much of the development era the concept of progress was narrowly viewed as economic growth, which in turn was summarized by the growth of the GDP. žHowever, the progress understood as economic growth is either ancient or universal, as Deboraj Ray in her Development economics (2007) explains, žeconomic growth is the modern invention and there is nothing universal or necessary about it: ž“Economic growth, as the title of Kuznets 1996 pioneering žbook on the subject suggests, is a relatively modern phenomenon. (…) žThroughout most of human history, appreciable growth in per capita gross ždomestic product (GDP) was the exception rather than rule. In fact it is not far žfrom the truth to say that modern economic growth was born after the Industrial žRevolution in Britain” (Ray, 2007: 48; emphasis added). žRostow identifies: “The value system of these societies was generally geared to what might be called a long-run fatalism” (Rostow, 1962: 5). Which entailed also undesirable ascriptive allocation of status within the traditional societies: ž“Generally speaking, these societies (…) had to devote a very high proportion of their resources to agriculture; and flowing from the agricultural system there was a hierarchical social structure, with relatively narrow scope – but some scope of vertical mobility” (Rostow, 1962: 5). Progress žas Hall explains further: “The founding žconcepts of social science were intimately bound up with the Enlightenment’s concept of progress, the idea that through the application of reasoned and žempirically based knowledge, social institutions could be created that would make men happier and free from cruelty, injustice and despotism” (Hall, 2000: 37). The concept of progress is intrinsically connected with science as science offers the possibilities of control. individualism ž(6) Individualism is the concept that the ž“individual is the starting point for all knowledge and action, and that individual žreason cannot be subjected to a higher authority” (Hall, 2000: 22; emphasis added). žOut of this characteristic stems the methodological individualism that prevailed žin economics throughout the 20th century individualism žThe following characteristics are important for the micro-approaches in žthe development theory, or as agent-centred perspective ; it is a philosophical žfoundation for the basic need, right-based approach and other approaches largely žembraced by the powerful actors of the development starting in the 1970s but žincreasingly since the 1990s. ž toleration ž(7) Toleration is “the notion žthat all human beings are essentially the same, despite their religious or moral žconvictions, and that the beliefs of other races or civilizations are not inherently žinferior to those of European Christianity” (Hall, 2001: 21). toleration žGetting rid of the fetters and limitations of unreasonable constraints of traditional world-views was explicitly one of the main longings of the Enlightenment philosophers. žFor freedom ranked high on the Enlightenment philosopher’s agenda ž freedom ž(8) Freedom žcan be defined “an opposition to feudal and traditional constraints on beliefs, trade, communication, social interaction, sexuality, and ownership of property” ž(ibid.). Uniformity of human nature žUniformity of human nature means “the belief that the principal characteristics of human nature were always and everywhere the same” (Hall, 2000: 22). If all people are same everywhere and if modernity means liberation from tradition and other constraints and the pursuit of individualistic aspiration then it is in sharp contrast with the existence of colonialism. We have to bear in mind that large part of the project of modernity occurred during the colonial times. secularism ž10) Secularism was the principle that the project of modernity firmly believed in and which often took form of “virulent anti-clericalism. The philosopher’s opposition to traditional religious authority stressed the need for secular knowledge free of religious orthodoxies” (Hall, 2000: 22). Nation states, nationalism ž žmultiplied the already existing cleavages in the torn žsocieties, but beside the existing tribal, regional and religious cleavages another one was created and imposed upon the former colonial subjects – the national one. ž the case in Africa, where the table-drawn boundaries, žconceived during the Scramble for Africa at the Berlin conference (1884–1885), cut across many indigenous communities and created superficial divisions that žfurther aggravated the already complicated situation. logic of authoritative intervention žPreston - Project of development Project of development Criticism of neoclassical approach žNeoclassical models neglect structural rigidities common to developing countries žPrevent market form responding to price changes in ´NORMAL´ E.G. THEORIZED MANNER Growth theory žGrowth theory – development process of capital formation; žCapital formation is largely determined by levels of savings and investment Growth Theory žFocus on high-growth sectors such as manufacturing ( to the deriment of agriculture) žIn instances where market imperfections prevent this process from reaching a successful conclusion, žintervention may be required form the state and/ or external sources ž Growth theory II žAs income levels increase with development žMARGINAL PROPENSITY TO SAVE (MPS) žKrajní sklon ke spotřebě /marginal propensity to consume/ also rises = freeing the capital for further investment žGrowth – self-sustained character žGrowth – market driven; however breaking free form the inertia of long term stagnation might require extensive state intervention. ž ž Growth theory žGrowth theory – development process of capital formation; žCapital formation is largely determined by levels of savings and investment žFocus on high-growth sectors such as manufacturing žIn instances where market imperfactions prevent this process from reaching a successful conslution, intervention may be required form the state and/ or externam sources Growth theory II žAs income levels increase with development žMARGINAL PROPENSITY TO SAVE (MPS) žKrajní sklon ke spotřebě /marginal propensity to consume/ also rises = freeing the capital for further investment žGrowth – self-sustained character žGrowth – market driven; however breaking free form the inertia of long term stagnation might require extensive state intervention. ž ž Project of globalization Project of globalization Ibid. II The development theory Criticism of neoclassical approach žNeoclassical models neglect structural rigidities common to developing countries žPrevent market form responding to price changes in ´NORMAL´ E.G. THEORIZED MANNER Growth theory žGrowth theory – development process of capital formation; žCapital formation is largely determined by levels of savings and investment žFocus on high-growth sectors such as manufacturing žIn instances where market imperfactions prevent this process from reaching a successful conslution, intervention may be required form the state and/ or externam sources Growth theory II žAs income levels increase with development žMARGINAL PROPENSITY TO SAVE (MPS) žKrajní sklon ke spotřebě /marginal propensity to consume/ also rises = freeing the capital for further investment žGrowth – self-sustained character žGrowth – market driven; however breaking free form the inertia of long term stagnation might require extensive state intervention. ž ž Preston: teorie růstu The development matrix ž žIn search on a mono-causal explanations žthe divine recipe to induce development žThe dangerous idea of self-sustained growth – automatic process žCypher, J.M.; Dietz, J.L.: The Process of Economic Development, Routledge, 1997. Characteristics of modernization theory žGrowth is regarded as unilinear process žSelf-sustained once the big-push is introduced žPossibilities of decline or underdevelopment are not taken into account ž ž Lewis – self sustained growth 1950:39 žOnce the snowball starts to move downhill, it will move of its own momentum žYou have, as it were, to begin by trolling your snowball up the mountain. žOnce it get there, the rest is easy, but you cannot get it there without the first making and initial effort. Paradigm shift žThe rise of growth theory - rift in mainstream development studies žOlder orthodox neoclassical theory replaced by Keynesian interventionist school žHowever continued stress on the importance of a ´pure´ market and export-led growth žPrinciple of comparative advantage Criticism of neoclassical approach žNeoclassical theory is static and focused on allocation of given resources žDevelopment problems – dynamic; focus on increasing investable resources through stimulation of savings and investment žBig push needed to initiate the process žNeoclassical theory offers only marginal adjustment and piecemeal improvements Criticism of neoclassical approach žNeoclassical models neglect structural rigidities common to developing countries žPrevent market form responding to price changes in ´NORMAL´ E.G. THEORIZED MANNER Criticism of neoclassical III žThe neoclassical emphasis on development – comparative advantage + free trade = inappropriate to the late industrializes of the South žDirect static losses from state intervention to support industrialization – more that offset by dynamic gains žDynamic gains = technological change, improved skills, long-term benefits from infant industries Eurocentric vision žGrowth theory – structured by Eurocentric vision of development based in Keynesian interpretation of the unique albeit historically important experience of core industrial capitalism ž´New nations´ - were to follow the Western model ž´Modernization imperative´ Nayar 1972 žBased on a stylized version of Western economic history žSequence of states on a unilinear path toward higher Western-style development Levy - latercomers Smelser – problem of integration The politics of modernization žquest for and the realization of equality žUniversal adult citizenship – distributive equality žPrevalence of universalistic legal norms (legal equality) žPredominance of achievement criteria in the recruitment of political and administrative roles (equality of opportunity) Crises of modernization Huntington (1976) Policy implications žRosenstein-Rodan – hidden potential for economic development žTaking advantage of increasing returns from large scale planned industrialization žSeveral sector simultaneously ž Brohman žModernization –mixture of development factors – technological change capital accumulation changing values and attitudes žInducing social change (values, norms, beliefs, customs) žTheorization of such social change – principally via conceptual apparatus of classical sociology Path dependence ž“The term path dependence has been used to describe the important role which historical events and historically formed institutions have in determining the future range of possibilities for a nation. Once institutions have been formed, they tend to lock-in certain evolutionary path for the nation [Fieldhouse, quoted by Cypher, Dietz, 1997:72] Gunnar Myrdal žIf previously formed institutions are socially constructive, then the evolutionary path of the economy can be virtuous; the process of cumulative causation leads to an upward spiral of social progress. Vicious circle žBut if the institutional basis of a society has been formed through a long process whereby inhibiting institutions and social practices have become deeply entrenched, then it is more likely that the future evolutionary path will be on of the vicious circles of cumulative causation leading to low levels of income and achievement. [Fieldhouse, quoted by Cypher, Dietz, 1997:72] ž ž“The last 40 years can be called the age of development. This epoch is coming to an end. The time is ripe to write its obituary” [Sachs, 1992: 1]. žSachs, W.: The Development Dictionary, A Guide to Knowledge as Power, Zed Books, London, 1992. ž ž Post - colonialism žImportant and thought –provoking perspective žDemonstrates how the production of Western knowledge forms is inseparable from the exercise of Western power. žIt atemps to loosen the power of Western knowledge and reassert the value of alternative experiences and ways of knowing (McEwan, 2002:30) OPVK Inovace výuky geografických studijních oborů, CZ.1.07/2.2.00/15.0222 Trusteeship žholding of property on behalf of another person or group - with the belief that the latter will better be albe to look after it whemselves at some time in the future žlittle of no recognition that traditional societies - content with their ways of life ž ž Post-was theories of development Post-war theories ž ž ž ž ž ž