Biodiversita / Biodiversity
A. Some 1 413 000 species have been described by scientists; most of these are either insects or plants (Wilson,
1992). B. Estimated species number in taxa with over 100 000 species expected (vertebrates given for comparison);
number of described species indicated by grey part of bars …. Number of undescribed species may reach 10 million,
or even 30-150 million (Hammond, 1992) - see next page (slide)
- viz další stránka
insects
other animals
viruses
bacteria
fungi
algaeprotists
Biodiversita / Biodiversity
undescribed
species
described
species
number of species in millions
viruses
bacteria
nematodes
crustaceans
prostists
algae
vertebrates
molluscs
fungi
arachnids
plants
insects
/ million
Precision of estimate
very bad
bad
medium
very bad
very bad
good
medium
medium
good
medium
J. Schlaghamerský: Nature Conservation – What is Biodiversity?
Terry L. Erwin:
estimated 30 million extant species – based on the following considerations:
• 1200 species of beetles found on the tree Luehea seemanii in Panama
• Of those 163 species were found exclusively on this tree species
• There are some 50 000 tree species in the tropics
• Beetles make up for 40 % of all arthropods
• There are approximately two times as many arthropod species in the canopy than
on the ground of tropical forests
• extrapolation
canopy fogging
A more sober estimate: 6-9 millions
(insects alone!)
• The term „biological diversity“ first used (in a book for a wider audience) by Raymond
F. Dasmann, biologist and conservationist “A different kind of country” (1968)
• First use of the term „biological diversity“ in a technical publication: Thomas Lovejoy,
tropical ecologist and conservationist, in his prologue to the book by M. E. Soulé
and B. A. Wilcox “Conservation Biology: An Evolutionary-Ecological Perspective” (1980)
• First use of the term „biodiversity“ possibly by W. G. Rosenem in 1985 in printed
materials prepared for the conference National Forum on Biological Diversity
organized in 1986 in the USA by the National Research Council.
• First use of the term „biodiversity“ in a publication: In 1988 by the sociobiologist
Edward O. Wilson in the proceedings volume (titled “Biodiversity”) from the
above-mentioned conference.
• Further spread of the term for instance thanks to the book by E. O. Wilson
(1992) “The diversity of Life”.
• Got embraced by the public, politicians etc. by the Convention on Biological
Diversity of the United Nations Earth Summit in 1992 (Rio de Janeiro).
The term biodiversity (biological diversity)
Thomas Lovejoy
Similar terms: Natural Diversity (used since the 1970ties, nowadays practically outcompeted
by the term Bio(logical) Diversity; Natural Heritage – wider term, includes inanimate nature.
Edward O. Wilson
Raymond F. Dasmann
Foto: Jennifer McNulty
J. Schlaghamerský: Nature Conservation – What is Biodiversity?
Biodiversita / Biodiversity
Viz další snímek
See next slide
Které společenstvo je rozmanitější? Druhová diversita!
Which community is more diverse? Species diversity!
Biodiversita / Biodiversity
Shannonův (Shannon-Wienerův) index diversity (a příslušná vyrovnanost = H’/H’max)
The Shannon (-Wiener) Index of Diversity (and the associated Evenness = H’/H’max)
Které společenstvo je rozmanitější? Druhová diversita!
Which community is more diverse? Species diversity!
Example of an index of species diversity (there are many more!):
Shannon (-Wiener) index (often, but erroneously Shannon-Weaver)
The most used index of diversity in ecology, originally from information theory.
Prerequisite (often neglected!): data have to be collected by random sampling
(in the statistical sense of the term).
H´= - Σ pi ln pi
S
i = 1
pi = ni / N Σ pi = 1
S
i = 1
H´= species diversity
S = total number of species (= species richness)
pi = probability of the occurrence of species i, i.e. percentage representation of a i-th species
based on all individuals of all species in the community, values from 0.0 do 1.0
N = total number of individuals
ni = number of individuals of the species i
Evenness (equitability): E´= H´/ H´max
H´max = - Σ 1/S ln 1/S = ln S
Species diversity includes both species richness and evenness of the community!
J. Schlaghamerský: Nature Conservation – What is Biodiversity?
Biodiversita / Biodiversity
genetická a fenetická
diversita (úroveň jedince
a populace)
genetic and phenetic
diversity (level of the
individual and population)
úroveň společenstva
community diversity
diversita ekosystémů
(diversita krajiny –
zahrnující vícero
biotopů)
ecosystem diversity
(-landscape diversity –
encompasing various
habitats)
Convention on Biological Diversity (http://www.cbd.int)
The convention was opened for signiture within the UNEP programme at the
UN Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiru in June 1992
(Rio Earth Summit). The Czech Republic signed the convention in 1993, it became
binding for it on 3 March 1994.
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) entered into force on 29 December 1993.
It has 3 main objectives:
1) The conservation of biological diversity
2) The sustainable use of the components of biological diversity
3) The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic
resources
National governments have the sovereign right to utilise their own resources in
compliance with their environmental policy. However, they are responsible for making
sure that they will not cause harm to the environment of other countries or territories
outside of their own territory.
J. Schlaghamerský: Nature Conservation – What is Biodiversity?
„For the purposes of this Convention:
"Biological diversity" means the variability among living organisms from all sources
including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the
ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species,
between species and of ecosystems.“
Convention on Biological Diversity (http://www.biodiv.org)
J. Schlaghamerský: Nature Conservation – What is Biodiversity?
compositional
diversity
structural
diversity
functional
diversity
J. Schlaghamerský: Nature Conservation – What is Biodiversity?
Which of the two assemblages has the higher biodiversity?!
Four species of beetles belonging to the family
Carabidae (ground beetles)
Three species of animals – representing
very different evolutionary lineages
Phylogenetic or taxic diversity
J. Schlaghamerský: Nature Conservation – What is Biodiversity?
Biodiversita / Biodiversity
Funkční biodiversita / Functional Biodiversity
Příklad / Example: ekologické skupiny žížal / ecological groups of earthworms
epigeické endogeické anektické
Schéma rozmístění a tvaru chodeb ekologických skupin žížal
jak je definoval Bouché.
Effect of earthworm populations and soil erosion: annual surface erosion
/ annual run off)
Struktura společenstva žížal na aktivní pastvině a přilehlém vlhkém
tropickém lese na aluviálním inceptisolu v Puerto Ricu.
Biodiversita / Biodiversity
Početnost jedinců (abundance) u zjištěných druhů členovců
Ekologický význam Význam pro
ochranu druhů
Nízká ochranářská hodnota? Ekologická redundantnost?
Biodiversita / Biodiversity
Keystone species as wolves, bats, fig trees, infectious species make up for a small
proportion of biomass of a natural community but have a big effect on its organisation
and survival.
Keystone species (e.g. wolfs, bats,
fig trees, infectious organisms)
Dominant species (e.g. forest trees, high game,
grasses, brown algae)
Rare species (e.g. butterflies,
mosses, wild plants)
Common species with little
effect (e.g. understorey trees,
shrubs, economically unimportant
grasses)
Proportional biomass of species
Overalleffectofspecies
Keystone = klenák
Biodiversita / Biodiversity
Keystone species as wolves, bats, fig trees, infectious species make up for a small
proportion of biomass of a natural community but have a big effect on its organisation
and survival.
Keystone species (e.g. wolfs, bats,
fig trees, infectious organisms)
Dominant species (e.g. forest trees,
high game, grasses, brown algae)
Rare species (e.g. butterflies,
mosses, wild plants)
Common species with little
effect (e.g. understorey trees,
shrubs, economically unimportant
grasses)
Proportional biomass of species
Overalleffectofspecies
…the vault colapses!
If we remove the
keystone…
Keystone species
Odstraníme-li klenák
(= keystone)…
…zhroutí se nám klenba!
keystone species
Zdroj: Primack, Kindlmann, Jersáková (2001): Biologie ochrany přírody. Portál, Praha.
J. Schlaghamerský: Nature Conservation – What is Biodiversity?
Biodiversita / Biodiversity
Increase of species diversity in the middle stages of succession
pionier early medium stage
climax
/ time
/diversity
Biodiversita / Biodiversity
Schematic representation of the impact of r- and K-selection on the population dynamics
(Lepš & Spitzer, 1988)
K – carrying capacity of the environment
N – number of individuals
K-strategy
r-strategy
K-selectionr-selection
density-dependent
mortality
environment
rather stable
environment
unstable
catastrophy-dependent
mortality
Biodiversita / Biodiversity (see next slide)
r-selekce/strategie K-selekce/strategie
relevantní abiotické faktory proměnlivější a/nebo hůře
předvídatelné
přibližně konstantní a/nebo
lépe předvídatelné
velikost populace proměnlivější v čase,
většinou daleko pod
nosnou kapacitou prostředí
relativně konstantní v
čase, blíže k nosné
kapacitě prostředí
vnitro- a mezidruhová
konkurence
různě silná, často slabá většinou intensivnější
konkurenceschopnost nižší vyšší
životní cyklus tendence k rychlému
vývoji, k vysokému rmax, k
časné a jednorázové
reprodukci (semelparii), k
nízké tělesné hmotnosti,
ke krátkověkosti
tendence k pomalému
vývoji, k nízkému rmax, k
pozdní a opakované
reprodukci (iteroparii), k
vysoké tělesné hmotnosti,
ke vysokověkosti
mortalita méně ovlivněna populační
hustotou
více ovlivněna populační
hustotou
Vlastnosti r- a K-stratégů a jejich prostředí:
Biodiversita / Biodiversity (English)
Traits of r- and K-strategists and their environment:
r-selection/strategy K-selection/strategy
relevant abiotic factors more variable or less approximately constant
predictable and/or more predictable
population size more variable over close to constant over time,
time, mostly far below closer to carrying capacity
the carrying capacity
intra- and interspecific competion of various strenght, usually more intensive
often week
competitevness lower higher
life cycle tendency towards faster tendency towards slow
development, often development, low rmax,
unrepeated reproduction late and repeated
(semelparity), low body reproduction (iteroparity),
mass, short life span high body mass, long life
span
mortality less influenced by more influenced by
population density population density
Biodiversita / Biodiversity
Biodiversita / Biodiversity
importance of stressdecisive
low
importance of
competition
low
high
low
decisive
importance of
disturbance
A scheme simulating the relationships
between the ability of vegetation to
resist competition, stress and
disturbance (GRIME, 1981).
A – The sides of the triangle correspond
to the relative importance of competition
(left side), disturbance (right side) and
stress (base). The basic life strategies
of plants (C, R, S) and transitional
strategies (C-S, C-R, C-S-R, S-R) are
placed within these coordinates.
B – Assumed range of life strategies
found in a – annuals, b - biannuals,
c - perennial herbs and ferns, d –
lichens, f – mosses (all according to
field data from N England)
C – Assumed course of succession:
a – in an environment with high (S1),
average (S2) and low (S2) potential
productivity;
b – in an environment with rising or
falling potential productivity.
The amount of biomass in each stage
of succession is indicated by the size
of the circles. The representation of
species and life forms in the
individual succession stages
corresponds with schemes A and B.
C – competition / konkurence
S – stress / stres
R – ruderal / ruderální
Biodiversita / Biodiversity
Total number of species on the study site
Totalnumberofspeciespertaxonomicgroup
Vhodnost různých taxonomických skupin hmyzu jako indikátorů celkového druhového
bohatství (jako míry biodiversity) / Suitability of various taxonomic groups of insects
to server as an indicator of species richness (as a measure of biodiversity)
Biodiversita / Biodiversity
Biodiversita / Biodiversity
Biodiversita / Biodiversity
Current assessment of the extiction rate:
• up to 50 000 species annually (David Tilman, USA), i.e. one species every 20 min.
• 100-10 000 times higher than the normal (background) extiction rate
• the current extiction rate is coming close to that during the last mass extiction
some 65 millions years ago, when, for instance, dinosaurs got extinct
“The 6th Extinction”
J. Schlaghamerský: Nature Conservation – What is Biodiversity?
Biodiversita / Biodiversity
The extinction rate in birds and mammals shown in 50 year steps since 1600.
The y-axis shows for these steps the percentage of extinct species from the total
number of known species. From 1800 tp 1950 the rate of extinction increased, while
it seems that it decreased somewhat since then (Smith et al., 1993).
birds
mammals
Biodiversita / Biodiversity
Blue whale
Fin whale
Sei whale
The decline in the abundance of Antarctic baleen whales under the influence of human harvesting.
Biodiversita / Biodiversity
Recorded extinctions of species from 1600 to 1995
Number of extinct species
Average
species number Percentage of
extinct species
Mainland Island Ocean Total
Mammals
Birds
Reptiles
Amphibians
Fishes
Invertebrates
Vascular plants
Biodiversita / Biodiversity
area 1
area 2
area 3
alpha
(average number of
species per mountain)
gama
(total number of
species in the area)
beta
(gama/beta)
Biodiversity indices for three areas,
each containing three mountains.
Each letter represents the population
of one species. Some species occur
on a single mountain only, other on
two or three. The alpha-, beta- and
gama-diversity are shown for each
area. If funds were available to protect
one of these areas only, area 2 should
be selected as it contains the highest
total diversity (here: species number).
However, if only a single mountain
were to be protected, a mountain
from area 1 should be selected as
this area contains the highest alpha-diversity
(local), i.e. the highest number
of species per mountain.
Any of the mountains in area 3 hosts
a more specialised assemblage than
any mountain in the other areas, as
shown by beta-diversity. Generally
area 3 would have a lower conservation
priority.
Biodiversita / Biodiversity
Co jsou "vzácné" druhy ? / What are “rare” species?
Rozšíření / Distribution
• Druhy s malým areálem / Species with a small area of distribution
• Druhy omezené na malý počet izolovaných stanovišť (přinejmenším v regionálním kontextu)
/ Species limited to a small number of insolated habitats (at least in the regional context)
Vazba na určité prostředí / Association with a specific habitat
• Druhy s výskytem na jednom nebo málo typech stanovišť (přinejmenším v regionálním kontextu)
/ Species ocurring only in one or few types of habitat (at least in the regional context)
Abundance (početnost jedinců, velikost populací) /(number of individuals, population size)
• Druhy, které mají pouze malé populace / Species with small populations only
Neznalost biologie, ekologických nároků druhu - domnělá vzácnost ! / Insufficient
knowledge of the biology, ecological requirements of species – apparent rarity
• Chybná hlášení (historická) výskytu / Erroneous records of occurrence (in the past)
• Nevhodná metodika sběru/pozorování/inventarizace / Inadequate methodology of collecting/
observation/making species inventories
Biodiversita / Biodiversity
Zastoupení katogorií vzácnosti při vyhodnocení 160 druhů rostlin na Britiských ostrovech
(na základě geografického rozšíření, vazby na stanoviště, velikosti jednotlivých populací) /
Representation of categories of rarity when evaluating 160 plant species on the British Isles
(based on geographic distribution, association with habitat, size of individual populations):
velikost populace
population size
areál
distribution area
velký / large malý / small
malá vazba na typ stanoviště
weak association with habitat type
existují velké populace
/ a large population exists
58 spp. 6 spp.
pouze malé populace
/ only small populations
2 spp. 0 spp.
výrazná vazba na typ stanoviště
strong association with habitat type
existují velké populace
/ a large population exists
71 spp. 14 spp.
pouze malé populace
/ only small populations
6 spp. 3 spp.