© 2002 Mammal Society, Mammal Review, 32, 26–39
Distribution, status and conservation problems of the Spanish
Ibex, Capra pyrenaica (Mammalia: Artiodactyla)†
JESÚS M. PÉREZ*, JOSÉ E. GRANADOS‡, RAMÓN C. SORIGUER§,
PAULINO FANDOS¶, FRANCISCO J. MÁRQUEZ* and
JEAN P. CRAMPE**
*Department of Animal and Plant Biology, and Ecology, Jaén University, Paraje Las
Lagunillas, s.n. E-23071 Jaén, Spain, ‡Parque Nacional de Sierra Nevada, Carretera de
Pinos Genil, Km. 7. E-18071 Granada, Spain, §Estación Biológica de Doñana (CSIC),
Av. María Luisa, s.n. E-41013 Sevilla, Spain, ¶Adecuación Ambiental, Almadén 15,
3ª Pta. 4, E-28014 Madrid, Spain, **Parc National des Pyrénées, 59, Route de Pau,
F-65000 Tarbes, France
ABSTRACT
In this paper, the distribution and status of the Spanish Ibex, Capra pyrenaica (Mammalia:
Artiodactyla), are revised. The whole Iberian population numbers nearly 50 000, distributed
in more than 50 nuclei, and has generally increased during the last decades. Nevertheless,
within this wider context, different conditions apply to different populations, including recent
extinction (the Pyrenean population), recovery from recent severe epizooty of sarcoptic
mange (e.g. the Sierras de Cazorla and Segura y Las Villas range population) and populations
at high densities (e.g. Gredos mountain range and Sierra de Grazalema Natural Park,
among others). The main factors affecting the conservation of this species are also reported
and discussed. On the basis of current information we propose the status of ‘vulnerable’ for
the Spanish Ibex.
Keywords: Capra pyrenaica, Ibex, population, Spain
INTRODUCTION
The genus Capra is naturally distributed throughout the Palaearctic and north-eastern Africa,
the Spanish Ibex (Capra pyrenaica Schinz 1838) being one of the six wild species included in
this genus (Corbet, 1978; Fandos & Medem, 1994). This is a medium-sized mountain ungulate
showing a marked sexual dimorphism (Schaller, 1977; Fandos, 1991; Granados et al.,
1997). Different ibex populations exhibit certain peculiarities regarding body size, horn
shape and hair colour pattern, to the point that Cabrera (1911, 1914) recognized four C.
pyrenaica subspecies, whose taxonomic status is still discussed (Couturier, 1962; Clouet,
1979; Shackleton, 1997). Recent genetic studies (Manceau et al., 1999) also question this
classification.
About 80 000 years ago an ibex close to C. caucasica Guldenstaedt & Pallas 1783 inhabited
the eastern border of the Central Massif, in France, and the Pyrenees. Subsequently, types
Mammal Rev. 2002, Volume 32, No. 1, 26–39. Printed in Great Britain.
Correspondence: Jesús M. Pérez, Department of Animal and Plant Biology, and Ecology, Jaén University,
Paraje Las Lagunillas, s.n. E-23071 Jaén, Spain (E-mail: jperez@ujaen.es).
†Our friend and colleague Dr I. Ruiz-Martínez died in July 1997 in a mountain accident while monitoring
ibexes. We want to dedicate this work to his memory.
Status of the Spanish Ibex 27
© 2002 Mammal Society, Mammal Review, 32, 26–39
intermediate between C. caucasica and C. pyrenaica appeared, the last becoming clearly differentiated
after the Würm glaciation, over 15 000 years ago, in the Pyrenean Massif
(Crampe, 1990; Crégut-Bonnoure, 1992; Crampe & Cregut-Bonnoure, 1994). However, another
hypothesis considers C. pyrenaica to be derived from an Alpine Ibex (C. ibex) type,
which ranged in the Pyrenees between the Riss–Würm glaciations (Engländer, 1986). Moreover,
palaeontological remains indicate the presence of Capra in the Iberian Peninsula since
1 000 000 years ago (Alados & Escós, 1996). Fossil remains of C. pyrenaica have been found
throughout the whole Iberian Peninsula (Gonzales, 1982). This, together with prehistoric
paintings, indicates a wide distribution as well as an abundance of the Spanish Ibex during
the Palaeolithic and Neolithic periods (Alados, 1985).
If Spanish Ibex were ever abundant during the Middle Ages, their populations decreased
significantly during the last centuries due to great hunting pressure, together with agricultural
development and habitat deterioration: it disappeared from the French Pyrenees by the midnineteenth
century, and around 1890 Cabrera’s subspecies C. pyrenaica lusitanica became
extinct from its range in the Portuguese Sierra de Geres and Galicia (Cabrera, 1914; Peña,
1978; Gonzales, 1982; Alados, 1985; Fandos, 1991). At the beginning of the twentieth century
the first reserve was created (Ordesa, Spanish Pyrenees, in 1918), and during the 1950s and
1960s a global conservation programme was prompted by establishing a system of national
game refuges and reserves, and allowing introductions and reintroductions of ibex stocks.
These are well documented by Crampe (1990). Recently various ibex populations, mainly
from southern Spain, have suffered sarcoptic mange outbreaks. In certain cases, as occurred
in the Sierras de Cazorla, Segura y Las Villas Natural Park, the mortality rate due to Sarcoptes
scabiei was over 95% of the whole population (Fandos, 1991). Moreover, the Pyrenean
population (C. pyrenaica pyrenaica) became virtually extinct in January 2000, when the last
adult female died.
In the Red Book of the Spanish Vertebrates (Blanco & González, 1992) the Spanish Ibex is
catalogued as a rare species. Recently (Alados, 1997) the distribution and status of each ibex
subspecies were addressed, the whole Spanish Ibex population being estimated at nearly
16 000 individuals: C. p. pyrenaica was considered as endangered, C. pyrenaica victoriae as
rare, and C. pyrenaica hispanica as not-threatened. In this paper we revise the current distribution
and trends of the species, as well as the main conservation problems involved.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Between May 1992 and September 1998 we conducted a survey on the status of the Spanish
Ibex. Our sampling method was based mainly on line transects (Anderson et al., 1979;
Burnham, Anderson & Laake, 1980; Buckland et al., 1993) and fixed points chosen for their
good visibility (Nievergelt, 1981; Escós & Alados, 1988), from where distance to animals was
recorded during a fixed time (1 h). Perpendicular distances were processed by using the DISTANCE
V2.0 program (Laake et al., 1993). Regarding fixed points, we used only two recording
zones (Greenwood, 1996), the first one with a radius (r) of 900 m, and the second
extending from r to infinity. A total transect length of over 2500 km was covered, both on
foot (982: 39.1%) and by car (1530: 60.9%). Sampling was planned and designed for each
population, taking into account the potential distribution (the mountain range), local
climatology, ibex phenology (e.g. the birth period was avoided because of the difficulty in
observing females), seasonal movements, daily activity pattern (Pérez, Granados & Soriguer,
1994) and preliminary data obtained from pilot transects (Burnham et al., 1980). At low
densities, when few observations were made, we used a kilometric abundance index (KAI)
(relative density), the number of animals observed per kilometre and hour. Moreover, at
very low densities we only confirmed presence or absence. When synthesizing the abundance,
distribution, trend and status of the Spanish Ibex, we used our own data together with those
from official reports (generally based on total counts: properly, censuses) and/or published
in scientific journals.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Figure 1 shows the current range of the Spanish Ibex and also represents the historical distribution
of the species at the beginning of the nineteenth century (based on Cabrera, 1911;
Fandos, 1989). The current distribution of this ungulate in the Iberian Peninsula can be summarized
as follows: C. p. pyrenaica is now extinct in its last location, the Ordesa National
Park; C. p. victoriae occupies the north-western part of the Iberian Peninsula; C. p. hispanica
is the most abundant subspecies (Fig. 1 and Table 1). Different locations are numbered
below, in parentheses, to facilitate their identification in Fig. 1.
28 J. M. Pérez et al.
© 2002 Mammal Society, Mammal Review, 32, 26–39
Fig. 1. Current distribution of the Spanish Ibex, Capra pyrenaica. For identification of different nuclei, see
the text. Dotted lines delimit boundaries of the provinces and the continuous line indicates the range of the
species at the beginning of the nineteenth century (redrawn from Fandos, 1989).
Status of the Spanish Ibex 29
© 2002 Mammal Society, Mammal Review, 32, 26–39
Pyrenean Massif (1)
Recently the ‘bucardo’ (C. p. pyrenaica) population confined in the Arazas Valley, within
the Ordesa National Park (Huesca), consisted of an adult female, which was captured, radiocollared
and released after collecting blood, skin and faeces samples. Use of the samples
taken for cloning purposes is now being considered. Although male specimens from the
Tortosa and Beceite national game reserves had been introduced there (García-González &
Herrero, 1999), this population is extinct because the ‘last’ bucardo died in January 2000 and
there has been no evidence of reproduction or hybridization during the last few years.
Although abundant in the fourteenth century, a ‘slow but continuous persecution’ of this
population produced its decline and its situation has been critical since the beginning of this
century (Cabrera, 1914). At that time, the population was estimated to include about 100
specimens. The last breeding data were reported in 1987 and at the end of the 1980s the population
size was estimated at 10 ± 4 ibex (García-González, 1990). Different explanations
have been considered for the bucardo’s decrease: adverse climatic conditions, susceptibility
to diseases (e.g. parasitic), undernutrition due to competition with livestock and Chamois
(Rupicapra pyrenaica pyrenaica Bonaparte, 1845) (García-González, Escos & Alados, 1996),
among others, could be involved in an extinction vortex. Repopulating the Pyrenean Massif
requires reintroduction of individuals coming from other populations. These should be
selected according to their genetic characters (Manceau et al., 1999).
Sierra de Guara (2)
Located in the Huesca province, this harbours several animals that have escaped from the
game enclosure of Bastaras, which originally came from Cazorla (Sierras de Cazorla, Segura
y Las Villas Natural Park, southern Spain) (C. Gortázar, personal communication). Recently,
ibex have been reported on the west side of this mountain range, Mallos de Riglos.
Sierra de Montserrat (3)
To this site, near Barcelona, between 10 and 20 ibex (from Tortosa y Beceite National Game
Reserve) were introduced in 1995 and 1996. This small population seems to be increasing but
its potential range is limited.
Sierra del Montsant (4)
In Tarragona province, the mountain range between Mora and Flix harbours small groups
of ibex that have colonized this area from the Sierra de Tortosa. The same occurs in the Sierra
de Cardo (5) located in the north of the Sierra de Tortosa (also in the Tarragona province).
Some animals have been seen during wild boar battues and the finding of a dead female has
been reported. Ibex have also colonized the Sierra del Montsia (6), in the south of the Ebro
Delta. These colonization processes seem to be restrained by poaching (J. Miranda, personal
communication).
Maestrazgo (7)
An area overlapping Tarragona, Teruel and Castellón provinces, this comprises the Puertos
de Tortosa y Beceite National Game Reserve (30 418 ha), established in 1966 with about
450 ibexes. Since that time, this population has increased to around 700 in 1970,
more than 3000 in 1977, 3800 in 1979 and more than 5000 in 1981 (Peña, 1978; Ortuño &
Peña, 1979; Alados, 1985). In our study, we estimated a total of more than 7000 ibex (1000
in Castellón, 1500 in Teruel and 4500 in Tarragona) distributed throughout more than
60 000 ha comprising the national game reserve, private game reserves and other wildlife
30J.M.Pérezetal.
©2002MammalSociety,MammalReview,32,26–39
Table 1. Catalogue of Spanish Ibex nuclei and numbers, including years and methods of sampling
Year of Year and method Effort Number of ibex Presence Relative Mean density Estimated
Denomination introduction of sampling (km/km2
) observed confirmed density (KAI) (ibex/km2
) size
1. Pyrenean Massif 1997 130 1 + 1–2
2. Sierra de Guara 1980 +
3. Sierra de Montserrat 1995–96 10–20
4. Sierra del Montsant ?? Small groups +
5. Sierra de Cardo ?? Small groups +
6. Sierra del Montsia ?? Small groups +
7. Maestrazgo 1966 1995 272 7000
8. Sierra de Martés 400
9. Muela de Cortes 1973 1995 (LT – FP) 19 32 1500
10. Serranía Cuenca 1964 1992 (LT – FP) 32 61 550
11. Cabañeros NP < 1995 1999 (TC) 15–20
12. Gredos 1993 (LT) 104 320 > 15 8000
13. Batuecas NGR 1974 1997 (TC) 260 760 900
14. Riaño 1991 350
15. Ancares 1999 9
16. Invernadeiro 1992 60
17. Pedriza, Soto del Real 1990 250
18. Alcaraz mountain range 1992 (LT) 22 53 800
19. Sierra Madrona–Sierra Morena 2600
20. Sierras Moratalla–Caravaca 1990 1997 (LT – FP) 200 47 +
21. Sierra de Grazalema NP 1998 (LT) 19 90 4.4–6.0 1600
22. Sierra de Líjar 1998 (LT) 12.7 36 2.83 100
23. Sierra del Aljibe +
24. Sierra Bermeja 1997 (LT) 14 18 0.7–3.2 300
25. Sierra de las Nieves NP 1997 (LT) 65.6 122 2.3–3.4 1500
26. Sierras Arcas–Pedroso 1995 (LT) +
27. Sierras Sur Antequera 1996 (LT) 22.9 25 1.2–4.1 2000
28. Sierra de Alfarnate +
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29. Tejeda-Almijara NGR 1997 (LT) 65 112 4.1–6.6 1500
30. La Resinera 1997 (LT) 35 34 0.3–1.9 400
31. Sierra de Loja 1997 (LT) 29 34 1.17 500
32. Sierra de Guájares–Albuñuelas 1996 (LT) 20.5 6 0.29 85
33. Sierra de Lújar 1997 (LT) 43 14 0.33 300
34. Contraviesa 1997 (LT) 44 10 0.23 500
35. Sierra Nevada NP 1998 (LT) 84.5 250 6.5–8.2 14 000
36. Sierras de Huétor NP 1998 (LT) 45 67 3.0–5.5 900
37. Depresión Guadix 1996 (LT) 25 20 0.80 100
38. El Mencal 1996 (LT) 5 2 0.40 20
39. Sierra de Baza NP 1980 1996 (LT) 100 12 0.12 200
40. Sierra de Castril NP 1996 (LT) 28 1 +
41. Sierra de la Sagra 1996 (LT) 4.8 1 +
42. Sierras de Lobos y Montilla 1996 (LT) 8.6 1 +
43. Sierra de Gádor 1997 (LT) 91 67 0.8–1.5 600
44. Sierra Filabres 1996 (LT) 140 7 0.05 75
45. Sierra Alhamilla 1996 (LT) 40 12 + 70–80
46. Sierra Cabrera 1996 (LT) 18 3 +
47. Sierra Estancias 1996 (LT) 80 1 +
48. Sierra María NP 1996 (LT) 35 2 +
49. Sierras de Cazorla, Segura 1998 (LT) 98.9 63 1.0–1.7 1300
y Las Villas NP
50. Sierra Mágina NP 1996 (LT) 105 35 0.33 85
51. Subbético jiennense 1996 (LT) 106 228 3.1–4.4 2800
52. Sierras Horconera y Albayate 1996 (LT) 10 1 +
53. Sierra Tablón y Montes de Osuna 1996 (LT) 14 2 +
LT, line transects; FP, fixed points; TC, total count; NGR, national game reserve; NP, natural park.
32 J. M. Pérez et al.
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areas, such as the Sierra de Turmell (Castellón province) and Órganos de Montoro, Río
Guadalope (Teruel province).
Sierra de Martés (8)
In Valencia province, this is very close to the Muela de Cortes mountain range and the two
areas are connected to each other. Several hundred ibex occur within a game reserve (J.M.
Theureau, personal communication).
Muela de Cortes (9)
Located in Valencia province, this mountain range includes a national refuge (36 009 ha)
created in 1973 that included a small remnant population, reinforced with 57 ibex from
Cazorla. At present this nucleus consists of over 1500 ibex restricted to the reserve area, its
number and spatial range being limited by an increasing Mouflon (Ovis orientalis Gmelin
1774) population.
Serranía de Cuenca (10)
Here, the Hosquillo National Game Reserve was established with animals from the Cazorla
mountain range. This population, consisting of about 500 ibex distributed throughout
25 000 ha, is expanding its range to the north: several ibex have been observed in
Guadalajara province.
Cabañeros National Park (11)
Within this park, in the west of Ciudad Real province, there are 15–20 ibex located in approximately
6000 ha (Sierra de Las Parrillas, Chorreras de Muelas y Cigüiñuelas) (National Park
staff, personal communication). Ibex were introduced here before 1995.
Gredos mountain range (12)
This is located between Castilla-León and Extremadura and has been a national game reserve
(27 222 ha) since 1976. Here, a small population of C. p. victoriae in 1905 (about 10 animals)
grew to almost 4000 ibex within the reserve by 1976 (Ortuño & Peña, 1979). In 1993 we estimated
there were about 8000 ibex distributed throughout the national game reserve and
private reserves, with a mean density of more than 15/km2
. This population seems to have
shown a small decrease in the last few decades, as Peña (1978) reported the existence of more
than 9000 animals in the whole Gredos mountain range in 1977.
Batuecas (13)
This reserve, located in Salamanca province, holds about 900 ibex (C. p. victoriae, from
Gredos) distributed throughout a 26 000-ha effective area. This population is increasing,
from 200 specimens at the beginning of the 1980s to more than 500 in 1988 (De la Peña,
1982).
Riaño (14)
In León province there is a game enclosure with about 200 ibex. These came from Gredos
and Batuecas and were released between 1991 and 1997. Today these animals share the space
with Chamois. In 1998 between 10 and 20 ibex from this enclosure were released into the wild
in surrounding areas (Posada de Valdeón and Portilla de la Reina) where both the Wolf (Canis
lupus Linné 1758) and Brown Bear (Ursus arctos Linné 1758) are present (authors’ own data;
J.C. Peral and J. Seijas, personal communication).
Status of the Spanish Ibex 33
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Ancares (15)
In the north-west tip of the León province, nine ibex from Riaño were released in this mountain
range during spring 1999, with another release in the autumn (J.C. Peral, personal
communication).
Invernadeiro (16)
The Campobecerros reserve (or enclosure) is located in the Orense province. There, nearly 30
ibexes from Batuecas were introduced in 1992. The size of this group is now about 60 animals
(authors’ own data; J. Losa, personal communication).
Pedriza, Soto del Real (17)
In Madrid province, near the Sierra de Navacerrada, there are about 300 ibex resulting from
an introduction made in 1990 with 50 animals from Gredos and Batuecas (C. p. victoriae).
Alcaraz mountain range (18)
At the north of the Sierras de Cazorla, Segura y Las Villas Natural Park, in the Albacete
province, this range includes about 300 ibex in a 9000-ha controlled area, together with 500
animals distributed throughout adjacent mountains. It is an expanding population.
Sierra Madrona – Sierra Morena (19)
These mountain ranges, in Ciudad Real and Jaén provinces, comprise very fragmented nuclei,
mainly located within private game reserves after previous introductions. Those located in
the Garganta private reserve may have their origin in a relict natural nucleus. We have estimated
the presence of over 1500 animals in Ciudad Real province and 1100 ibex in the Sierra
Morena mountain range of Jaén province.
Sierra de Moratalla – Sierra de Caravaca (20)
Located in Murcia province, the presence of the Spanish Ibex in these mountain ranges was
confirmed in 1990, during surveys of Barbary Sheep (Ammotragus lervia Pallas 1777). The
ibex were affected by sarcoptic mange.
Andalucía (21–53)
This is, probably, the best known region for the Spanish Ibex. Granados et al. (1998) reported
up to 34 nuclei with a total number of individuals of around 30 000, and their current densities
are included in Table 1. These are distributed throughout 9900 km2
. Several populations
show high densities: Sierra de Grazalema Natural Park, Cádiz province (4.4–6.0/km2
);
Sierra Tejeda, Málaga province (4.1–6.6/km2
); and Sierra Nevada Natural Park, Granada and
Almería provinces (6.5–8.2/km2
). With a total size of nearly 14 000, this is considered to be
the largest population in the Iberian Peninsula. It has been increasing, especially after the
creation of the national game reserve in 1966 (Pérez et al., 1994).
The ibex population of the Sierras de Cazorla, Segura y Las Villas Natural Park (Jaén
province), suffered an outbreak of sarcoptic mange in 1997, producing a mortality rate
greater than 95–99%. Four years later only 150 ibex were known to have survived the epizooty
(Fandos, 1991). In 1998 we estimated a population size of about 1200 animals, distributed
at low densities: 1.1–1.5/km2
. In these mountain ranges, the disease continues to
affect not only this species but also other sympatric wild ungulates: Red Deer (Cervus elaphus
Linné 1758), Fallow Deer (Dama dama Linné 1758) and Mouflon. Fandos (1991) considered
that this population has passed three recent bottlenecks: the first in 1911, the second in about
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1939, and the last one in 1988 (this due to the scabies epizooty). Moreover, scabies has reached
other ibex populations: Sierra Mágina Natural Park (Jaén province) (Palomares & Ruiz,
1993); Sierras de Castril Natural Park, Sierra de Loja, Sierra de la Sagra, Sierra del Mencal,
Sierra de Almijara, Sierras de Huétor Natural Park and Sierra Nevada Natural Park
(Granada and Almería); and Sierra de las Nieves Natural Park (Málaga province). Nowadays
this problem also affects other ungulate species outside Andalucía, e.g. Barbary Sheep
in Sierra Espuña Natural Park (Murcia) and the Cantabrian Chamois Rupicapra pyrenaica
parva (Cabrera, 1911) (Asturias).
When comparing our data with those previously reported in the literature (Peña, 1978;
Alados, 1985; Fandos, 1989, 1991), we observed an increase in both the total numbers and
the number of nuclei. This reflects not only a natural and unnatural expansion of the species,
but also an increase in the sampling effort and the studied area. Our interpretation of the
review by Alados (1997) in the early to mid-1990s, who estimated the overall Spanish population
to be between 11 000 and 12 000 ibex, is that her work was based only on bibliographical,
instead of field, data.
The Spanish Ibex was also introduced in Argentina (Olrog & Lucero, 1981) but little is
known about the current status and distribution of the species in that country. Currently, a
project on determining the habitat suitability to reintroduce the species in the Sierra de Geres
(north-west Portugal) is being evaluated. Another project for reintroducing the Spanish Ibex
in the French Pyrenees was initiated in 1991 by the staff of the Parc National des Pyrénées
in collaboration with the Office National de la Chasse. The first part of this study consisted
of determining potential suitable sites for reintroduction. The second goal of this project was
to make a phylogenetic study of the Iberian and Alpine ibex populations to select the most
appropriate source of individuals. This study has been supported by a Life programme:
Restauration de la grande faune pyrénéene.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE SPANISH IBEX CONSERVATION
Habitat alteration and fragmentation
Agro-sylvicultural activities, urbanization, infrastructure (e.g. highways) and fire, among
other human activities, may be considered as the main factors threatening ibex conservation.
We must take into account that different protected areas (natural parks) harbouring ibex
populations (e.g. Sierras de Cazorla, Segura y Las Villas, Sierra Mágina and Sierra Nevada)
have also more or less threatened floras, characterized by a high number of endemic taxa.
The continuous alteration and destruction of mountain habitats influences the ibex distribution,
fragmenting it into metapopulations. This is our current interpretation of the
spatial distribution of the ibex, which needs to be supported by genetic analyses and by
specific studies on ibex movements between close mountain ranges. These metapopulations
need to be demographically characterized, by establishing local extinction and replacement
rates.
Inadequate management of ibex populations
Management carried out during the last few decades did not take into account the growth
rate of each population and, generally, has been orientated to trophy harvest, leading in most
cases to densities over the species’ carrying capacity, as well as populations with a distorted
sex ratio and/or age structure. Moreover, the systematic harvest of the best trophies is considered
to be a major factor of genetic impoverishment (Hartl, 1992). On the other hand,
as poaching for trophy heads presumably also concentrates on the oldest males, it is quite
difficult to quantify and evaluate the overall effect.
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Genetic background
Because of their high rate of change in peripheral regions, sequences of some mitochondrial
genes (mtDNA), such as cytochrome b (cyt b) or the main non-coding control region
(CR), are widely used in population and evolutionary genetics of mammals. Mitochondrial
DNA coding genes and, in particular, the sequence of cyt b have proved useful for resolving
phylogenetic patterns among artiodactyls within evolutionary time frames less than 20 million
years (Randi et al., 1998). The level of variation detected in the mtDNA (cyt b or CR) of C.
pyrenaica reinforces the view that the initial founding population consisted of a small number
of founders (possibly over several dozens of individuals). The actual distribution of genetically
defined subpopulations may be explained as a local founder effect, with local haplotype
evolution and partial extinction of a high proportion of the effective population in recent
times. The study of Manceau et al. (1999) focused on finding the most appropriate source of
individuals to restore the Pyrenean ibex population. After studying the sequence variability
of a proportion of the mitochondrial CR and cyt b, they found a relatively high level of divergence
between the Alpine Ibex (C. ibex) and the Spanish Ibex, comparable to the level of
divergence between the Pyrenean and other Spanish haplotypes. These authors considered
the Sierra Nevada population as the most diverse. On the other hand, the groups (evolutionary
significant units; ESU) supported by high bootstrap values were not all congruent
with those based on morphological taxonomy (Cabrera, 1911). Another study (Sánchez &
Jiménez, 1998) carried out on 57 samples of C. pyrenaica, from eight populations, concluded
that only 10 of the 13 microsatellites could be considered as informative. These authors considered
the population from Tortosa-Beceite (7) as the most variable and therefore the most
appropriate to reinforce the Pyrenean population. Although genetic information derived from
both studies is fragmentary and refers only to small samples coming from a few nuclei or
populations, results are quite similar, and the phylogenetic trees derived from the two data
sets are, in the main, comparable.
In a recent genetic analysis carried out in the context of the Andalusian populations of
C. pyrenaica (authors’ unpublished data), we studied the variability of a large fragment of
cyt b (910 base pairs) within a sample of 276 specimens and detected the presence of at
least 10 different mitochondrial haplotypes, distributed in two clearly separated populations.
The Sierra Nevada population includes seven of the 10 haplotypes characterized for the
Andalusian ibex populations. This might indicate that this population has conserved a relatively
high effective population over time or, in other words, it has not been involved in drastic
bottleneck processes. The populations distributed in south-west Andalucía (mainly in Málaga
and Cádiz provinces) show only two haplotypes, which may be interpreted as a consequence
of considerable stress during recent history and a depletion in the number of ancestral haplotypes
in these populations. In conclusion, we hypothesize the existence of at least three
ESUs (data from C. p. victoriae are not available), located in Pyrenees, Gredos and surrounding
areas, and the south-eastern Iberian Peninsula.
In the future, the main goal should be to determine the structure of populations on
the basis of genetic markers variable enough to detect differences between regional
samples (e.g. an extensive study of microsatellite loci). In this way we can document
changes in genetic variability due to translocations and founder events in peripheral ibex
populations.
In Spain overall, several regional populations composed of a series of partially independent
local populations could be considered. Each population seems to contain unique
portions of the total genetic variation. Thus, we recommend that they be treated as
separate management units. Translocations may be necessary in re-establishing certain
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populations. In these cases, the source of donor individuals must be carefully evaluated,
especially if preservation of current genetic structure is considered to be a conservation
goal.
Competition with domestic and wild ungulates
Much of the range of the Spanish Ibex is shared, specially in summer months when exploiting
the summer high mountain pastures, with sheep, domestic goats, cattle and horses. This
leads to interspecific competition (Fandos, 1991; Martínez, 1992) and overgrazing, which may
become specially important in dry years. In addition, the introduction of alochtonous wild
ungulate species in areas occupied by the ibex (e.g. Fallow Deer and Mouflon in the Sierras
de Cazorla, Segura y Las Villas Natural Park) not only increases the grazing pressure, but
also the potential risk of transmission of both native and exotic diseases (Fandos & Reig,
1992).
Human disturbance
Tourism and mountain sports (trekking, rock-climbing, cycling, bikes, cars and skiing) and,
eventually, field scientific research, among other ‘non-consumptive’ activities, often exclude
ibex from regular and favourable feeding habitats (Alados, 1985).
Diseases
Both infectious and non-infectious diseases, together with predation, are important factors
regulating the demographic trend of wild populations. Over 60 species of endo- and ectoparasites
have been reported from C. pyrenaica (Rossi, Marco & Meneguz, 1994; Pérez et al.,
1996a, b; Lavín et al., 1997). Sarcoptic mange or scabies, produced by the astigmatid mite
Sarcoptes scabiei, has become one of the most important factors increasing the mortality rate
in populations, and has international repercussions on wild mammals, especially mountain
ungulates (Kutzer, 1966; Fain, 1978; Miller, 1985; Rossi et al., 1995; Pérez et al., 1997;
Fernández et al., 1997). Infecto-contagious diseases have been also studied in the Spanish
Ibex. León et al. (1994) reported prevalence of borreliosis (20.5%), chlamydiosis (12.0%),
pasteurellosis (5.8%) and brucellosis (2.9%) in the ibex from Sierra de Las Nieves Natural
Park. In the Sierras de Cazorla, Segura y Las Villas Natural Park, within the period 1982–
84, 30% of females surveyed were affected by brucellosis, and tuberculosis was diagnosed
in 18% of samples, especially in males (Fandos, 1991). A general feature of many of these
agents is their lack of host-specificity, being able to infect both the Spanish Ibex and other
wild and domestic ungulates, among other mammals. Therefore, at high host densities,
the availability of habitat for both micro- and macroparasites increases, as does the risk of
epizootics.
In spite of the estimated current number of ibex and the globally upward trend, because
of the influence of the above-mentioned factors, the fragmentation level and overall size of
the range of the species, we consider that the current status of C. pyrenaica, according to the
criteria given by the IUCN Caprinae Specialist Group (Shackleton, 1997), must be vulnerable.
This is especially true for the population located in the Gredos mountain range, due to
its high density. The so-called C. p. pyrenaica (bucardo) population is virtually extinct, and
the southern populations (included within C. p. hispanica) must be considered in general terms
at a lower risk, but needing specific habitat conservation programmes and adequate management
plans. Eventually, some of these populations may suffer severe fluctuations due to
epizootic processes, and reach the status of vulnerable.
Status of the Spanish Ibex 37
© 2002 Mammal Society, Mammal Review, 32, 26–39
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank Mr M. Moreno, Mrs M.C. Pérez, Mr C. Franco, Mr E. Serrano,
Mr J.M. Gil, Mr F. Gómez, Mr J. García, Mr J. Navarro, Mr E. García, Mr M. Alguacil, the
gamekeepers, specially Mr A. Rodríguez, and Dr J.R. Delibes for their collaboration in field
samplings. Mr J. Miranda, Mr J.C. Peral and Mr J. Seijas provided valuable data. This work
has been largely supported by the Junta de Andalucía, project: ‘Seguimiento y control de la
sarna sarcóptica en las poblaciones de cabra montés (C. p. hispanica) existentes en Andalucía’,
Convenio Universidad de Jaén – Consejería de Medio Ambiente. Comments from D. W.
Yalden, S. Lovari and an anonymous referee contributed to improve substantially the
manuscript.
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Submitted 12 January 2000; returned for revision 21 August 2000; revision accepted 24 October 2000