Biodiversity 167
Coordinating lead authors: Ricardo Barra, Pierre Portas and Roy Victor Watkinson
Lead authors: Oladele Osibanjo, Ian Rae, Martin Scheringer and Claudia ten Have
Contributing authors: Borislava Batandjieva, Walter Giger, Ivan Holoubek,
Heather Jones-Otazo, Liu Lili, Philip Edward Metcalf, Karina Silvia Beatriz Miglioranza,
Arthur Russell Flegal, Adebola A. Oketola (GEO Fellow) and Monica Montory (GEO Fellow)
Principal scientific reviewer: Mika Sillanpaa
Chapter coordinator: Ludgarde Coppens
Credit:©VladimirMelnik/iStock
Chemicals and Waste
6C H A P T E R
Part 1: State and Trends168
Main Messages
168 Part 1: State and Trends
There is an extensive but incomplete body of scientific
knowledge on the impacts of chemicals and wastes on
humans and the environment, with particular information
and data gaps on the uses, emissions, exposure pathways
and effects of chemicals. Global understanding of the
complexity of properties and environmental impact of
chemicals and wastes is therefore markedly deficient. The
fourth Global Environment Outlook (2007) indicated that
data were incomplete globally and that, for many regions,
it was important to evaluate the magnitude of chemical
contamination and its impacts on the environment and
human health. But little has occurred since then. The
UN Secretary-General, in his May 2011 report on policy
options for waste management to the Commission on
Sustainable Development, stated that: “the barriers to
effective management and minimization include lack of
data, information, and knowledge on waste scenarios”.
And the UN-Habitat report on waste management in cities
stated that “waste reduction is desirable but, typically, it is
not monitored anywhere” (UN-Habitat 2010).
Over the last decade chemical production has shifted
from the countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation
and Development (OECD) to the BRIC countries
(Brazil, Russia, India and China) and other developing
countries, accompanied by a doubling of sales and the
development of many new types of chemical. The OECD’s
share of world production is now 9 per cent less than in
1970. Much of this shift has been due to major emerging
economies. In 2004, China accounted for the largest
share of BRIC production at 48 per cent, followed by
Brazil and India at 20 per cent each, and Russia at 12 per
cent (OECD 2008b). Chemical consumption in developing
countries is likewise growing much faster than in the
developed world and could account for a third of global
consumption by 2020.
Chemicals play an important role in human life, economic
development and prosperity, yet they can also have
adverse impacts on the environment and human health.
The diversity and potential consequences of such
impacts, combined with limited capacity in developing
countries and economies in transition to manage these
impacts, make the sound management of chemicals
and waste a key cross-cutting issue. A recent study by
the World Health Organization (WHO) (Prüss-Ustün et al.
2011) indicated that 4.9 million deaths were attributable
to environmental exposure to chemicals in 2004. In
many regions, hazardous waste streams are mixed with
municipal or solid wastes and then either dumped or
burned in the open air (UN-Habitat 2010).
Global chemical pollution is a serious threat to
sustainable development and livelihoods. The problem
has impacts on both humanity and ecosystems, and
includes adverse effects from long-term exposure to low
or sub-lethal concentrations of single chemicals or to
mixtures of chemicals. Currently, more than 90 per cent
of water and fish samples from aquatic environments
are contaminated by pesticides. Estimates indicate that
about 3 per cent of exposed agricultural workers suffer
from an episode of acute pesticide poisoning every year
(Thunduyil et al. 2008). Pollution with persistent organic
pollutants (POPs) is widespread, in particular affecting
remote areas such as the Arctic and Antarctic.
Emerging issues requiring better understanding
and prompt action to prevent harm to health and
Chemicals and Waste 169
Chemicals and Waste 169
the environment include the sound management of
electronic and electrical waste (e-waste), endocrinedisrupting
chemicals, plastics in the environment,
open burning, and the manufacture and use of
nanomaterials. E-waste has become one of the major
environmental challenges of the 21st century: it is the
fastest-growing waste stream in the world, estimated at
20–50 million tonnes per year (Schwarzer et al. 2005).
It is of particular interest because it contains not only
hazardous substances – such as heavy metals including
mercury and lead, and endocrine-disrupting substances
such as brominated flame retardants (BFRs) – but also
many strategic metals such as gold, palladium and
rare earth metals that can be recovered and recycled.
Very little is known about whether nanomaterials or
nanoparticles are released from products when they
are incinerated, buried or degraded over time, so it is
possible that they will pose a serious waste disposal
challenge. Sound decision making on nanotechnology
has provoked much debate among developed country
regulators, and increasingly among the regulators of
developing countries (Morris et al. 2010).
Effective management of these issues requires better
information gathering and integrated approaches
to chemicals, radioactive materials and waste
management, supported where appropriate by
improved environmental governance. The process for
greater cooperation and coordination between the
chemicals and waste conventions (Basel, Rotterdam
and Stockholm) provides an opportunity to enhance
awareness raising, knowledge transfer, capacity
building and national implementation that should be
further explored.
Part 1: State and Trends170
INTRODUCTION
More than 248 000 chemical products are commercially available
(CAS 2011) and subject to regulatory and inventory systems.
Chemicals provide valuable benefits to humanity including in
agriculture, medicine, industrial manufacturing, energy extraction
and generation, and public health and disease vector control.
Chemicals play an important role in achieving developmental and
social goals, especially for improving maternal health, reducing
child mortality and ensuring food security, and advances in
their production and management have increased their safe
application. Nonetheless, because of their intrinsic hazardous
properties, some pose risks to the environment and human
health. Simultaneous exposure to many chemicals – the cocktail
or synergistic effect – is likely to exacerbate the impacts.
Chemicals are released at many steps in their life cycle, from the
extraction of raw materials, through production chains, transport
and consumption, to final waste disposal. They are distributed
through indoor environments, food and drinking water, and
through soils, rivers and lakes. Certain long-lived chemicals such
as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and heavy metals are
transported globally, reaching otherwise pristine environments
such as rain forests, deep oceans or polar regions, and can
quickly pass along the food chain, bioaccumulating to cause
toxic effects in humans and wildlife.
Products derived from chemicals often become hazardous
wastes in their end-of-life phase, generating additional
pollution risks that can devalue their initial benefits and
counteract development advantages. Pollution from dumping
and uncontrolled open burning is common (UN-Habitat 2010),
and is even increasing in some parts of the world, though
some progress has been made in recent decades. The causes
of mismanagement often lie in such factors as deficiencies in
institutional and regulatory frameworks. Such shortcomings
also have an impact on the growing transboundary movement
of hazardous wastes from developed to developing countries,
where compliance, monitoring and enforcement of regulations
tend to be weak, and the financial and technical capacity to
implement improved waste management practices is limited. This
leads to a risk of rapidly increasing exposure for greater portions
of the population and to related, often serious, health problems,
in particular for women and children.
Broadly, a two-speed situation exists, with developed countries
generally having comprehensive systems for chemical and
hazardous waste management, while developing countries
generally do not. Developing countries and economies in
transition struggle with basic landfill co-disposal of many types
of wastes, with little capacity for their separation and sound
management.
While many developing countries have ratified the multilateral
environmental agreements on chemicals and wastes – such as
the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movement
of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (Basel Convention 1989)
– these are not always transposed into national legislation in
a comprehensive manner. In addition, given the cross-sectoral
nature of the issue, the regulation and management of chemicals
in most developing countries is spread over several ministries –
including agriculture, industry, labour, environment and health
– and between several agencies within each ministry.
In most countries, it is the poorest members of the population
that are at particular risk of exposure. This may be due to
occupational exposure, poor living conditions, lack of access to
clean water and food, domestic proximity to polluting activities,
or a lack of knowledge about the detrimental impacts of
chemicals – or a combination of these factors.
Radioactive contamination is another source of potential
environmental and health hazards, both from controlled
emissions and waste management, and from accidental release.
The controlled release of radionuclides to the atmospheric
and aquatic environments may occur as authorized effluent
discharge, while uncontrolled release may occur as a result of
accidents and at legacy sites left by nuclear weapons testing. The
management and disposal of radioactive waste from industry,
research and medicine, as well as from nuclear power, is relevant
to almost all countries, requiring different approaches according
to the volume, radioactivity and other properties of the waste.
Initially, governance instruments for chemicals and wastes
could be considered to have been reactive, piecemeal and
isolated, and with mixed success – the Montreal Protocol on
Waste treatment plant, Los Angeles, United States. © John Crall/iStock
Chemicals and Waste 171
Box 6.1 Multilateral environmental agreements and
the sound management of chemicals
The sound management of chemicals is addressed by
17 different multilateral agreements including the 1998
Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent
Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides
in International Trade and the 2001 Stockholm Convention
on Persistent Organic Pollutants (both effective since 2004).
In addition, in 2006 the First International Conference
on Chemicals Management established the Strategic
Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM),
a multi-stakeholder policy framework for achieving the
safe management of chemicals worldwide by 2020 (SAICM
2009). So far, more than 300 activities have been conducted
under the SAICM Global Plan of Action. Pollutant release
and transfer registers have been promoted and currently
just 23 countries have established a functioning national
register. The globally harmonized system of classification
and labelling of chemicals, containing all criteria necessary
for classification of chemicals according to their intrinsic
hazardous properties, has been established, as have
provisions for hazard communication. However, many
challenges remain and the lack of prioritization of sound
management of chemicals, the limitations of legislation,
the lack of information and the lack of adequate financial
resources, including for the funding of activities concerning
the remediation of contaminated sites, are still major
obstacles to achieving the 2020 goal (CSD 2010).
Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (UNEP 1987), for
example, being effective in reducing the impact of ozonedepleting
substances, while the Basel Convention (1989)
has struggled to reduce the transboundary movement of
hazardous waste. There have been significant advances over
the past decade, however, and regulatory instruments are now
improving with the better and more widespread understanding
of the life cycle of chemicals and their association with the
generation and processing of wastes. Efforts to bring the work
of the Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm Conventions together
constitute a first step towards addressing the entire life cycle
of chemicals. This also applies to the establishment of the
Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management
(SAICM) and the current negotiation for an international
agreement on mercury. Similarly, the Joint Convention on the
Safety of Radioactive Waste Management and the Safety of
Spent Nuclear Fuel Management is a significant step forward.
However, ensuring that these efforts are sustained and fully
anchored at the national level requires further investment in
better science-based understanding of chemicals and wastes,
policy creativity to balance development and sustainability
imperatives, public-private partnerships to link technological
innovation and societal responsibility, and allocation of funds
for comprehensive capacity building.
INTERNATIONALLY AGREED GOALS
This chapter evaluates progress towards internationally agreed
goals relevant to chemicals and wastes. The goals are those
identified by the GEO-5 High-Level Intergovernmental Advisory
Panel from key multilateral environmental agreements and
related agreements and declarations, as further considered and
prioritized in regional consultations. The current lack of data, a key
constraint on many aspects of chemical and waste management,
has not been seen as a reason to preclude the selection of a goal.
The goals evaluated are reflected in Table 6.1.
In the 1970s and 1980s the human health and environmental
impacts of chemicals and waste led to the creation of a number
of key international agreements. These, along with other
related goal-based international agreements and declarations
such as those emanating from the 2002 World Summit on
Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg, constitute
a framework for organizing and implementing specific goals for
the environmentally sound design, production, consumption and
recycling or disposal of chemicals and hazardous waste (Box 6.1).
These goals are also considered against the background of the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), specifically MDG 1 for
eradicating extreme poverty and hunger, and MDG 7 for ensuring
environmental sustainability. MDG 7 includes specific targets for
ozone-depleting substances, as well as for improved access to
safe drinking water and sanitation facilities.
The broad set of principles pivotal to the development of
international agreements comprises prior informed consent for
the transboundary movement of hazardous waste and certain
hazardous chemicals; transparency through national reporting;
the environmentally sound management of chemicals and waste;
waste prevention; the precautionary approach; and the polluterpays
principle. These are addressed through specific obligations
such as the implementation of control measures, monitoring
of the state of the environment, and compliance regimes with
supportive delivery mechanisms including capacity building and
training, international cooperation, synergies and partnerships.
Goals relevant to the sound management of chemicals and
waste aim to protect human health and the environment while
improving resource efficiency. They can be grouped into six
themes:
•	 sound management of chemicals throughout their life cycle,
including persistent organic pollutants and heavy metals, and
of waste;
•	 control of the transboundary movement of hazardous wastes
as well as responsible trade in hazardous chemicals;
•	 transparent science-based risk assessment and risk
management procedures, as well as monitoring systems at
the national, regional and global levels;
•	 support for countries to strengthen their capacity for the
sound management of chemicals and waste;
•	 protection and preservation of the marine environment from
all sources of pollution;
•	 safe radioactive and nuclear waste management.
Part 1: State and Trends172
Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (JPOI) (WSSD
2002) Paragraph 23
(Prioritized during regional consultations in Europe
and the Asia and Pacific region)
Renew the commitment, as advanced in Agenda 21, to sound management of chemicals throughout their life
cycle and of hazardous wastes for sustainable development as well as for the protection of human health
and the environment, inter alia, aiming to achieve, by 2020, that chemicals are used and produced in ways
that lead to the minimization of significant adverse effects on human health and the environment, using
transparent science-based risk assessment procedures and science-based risk management procedures, taking
into account the precautionary approach, as set out in principle 15 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and
Development (UNCED 1992a), and support developing countries in strengthening their capacity for the sound
management of chemicals and hazardous wastes by providing technical and financial assistance.
Paragraph 22
(Prioritized during regional consultations in the Asia
and Pacific region)
Prevent and minimize waste and maximize reuse, recycling and use of environmentally friendly alternative
materials, with the participation of government authorities and all stakeholders, in order to minimize adverse
effects on the environment and improve resource efficiency, with financial, technical and other assistance for
developing countries.
Paragraph 23g Promote reduction of the risks posed by heavy metals that are harmful to human health and the environment,
including through a review of relevant studies, such as the United Nations Environment Programme global
assessment of mercury and its compounds.
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic
Pollutants (Stockholm Convention 2001) Article 1
... to protect human health and the environment from persistent organic pollutants.
Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed
Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous
Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade
(Rotterdam Convention 2001) Article 1
... to promote shared responsibility and cooperative efforts among Parties in the international trade of certain
hazardous chemicals in order to protect human health and the environment from potential harm and to
contribute to their environmentally sound use, by facilitating information exchange about their characteristics,
by providing for a national decision-making process on their import and export and by disseminating these
decisions to Parties.
Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary
Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their
Disposal (Basel Convention 1989) Preamble
... to protect, by strict control, human health and the environment against the adverse effects which may result
from the generation and management of hazardous waste and other wastes.
International Convention for the Prevention of
Pollution from Ships 1973, as modified by the
Protocol of 1978 (MARPOL 1973/78) Article 17
The Parties to the Convention accept the obligation to promote, in consultation with other international bodies
and with assistance from UNEP and coordination with the Executive Director of UNEP, the necessary support for
Parties who may require technical assistance in the following areas:
a) Training scientific and technical staff; b) obtaining equipment and monitoring installations where needed;
c) ease the adoption of additional measures and conditions which seek to prevent or reduce pollution in the
marine environment by ships; and d) encourage research; preferably within the concerned countries, in order to
promote realization of the aims and objectives of this convention.
International Convention on the Prevention of
Marine Pollution by the Dumping of Wastes and
Other Matter (London Convention 1972)
Article 2
Contracting Parties shall individually and collectively protect and preserve the marine environment from
all sources of pollution and take effective measures, according to their scientific, technical and economic
capabilities, to prevent, reduce and where practicable eliminate pollution caused by dumping or incineration at
sea of wastes or other matter.
Article 12 The Contracting Parties pledge themselves to promote, within the competent specialized agencies and
other international bodies, measures to protect the marine environment against pollution caused by:
(a) hydrocarbons, including oil and their wastes.
Agenda 21 (UNCED 1992b) Chapter 22 Paragraph 3 The objective of this programme area is to ensure that radioactive wastes are safely managed, transported,
stored and disposed of, with a view to protecting human health and the environment, within a wider framework
of an interactive and integrated approach to radioactive waste management and safety.
Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel
Management and on the Safety of Radioactive
Waste Management (IAEA 1997) Article 1
The objectives of this Convention are: (i) to achieve and maintain a high level of safety worldwide in spent
fuel and radioactive waste management [...]; (ii) to ensure that during all stages of spent fuel and radioactive
waste management there are effective defenses against potential hazards so that individuals, society and
the environment are protected from harmful effects of ionizing radiation, now and in the future, in such a way
that the needs and aspirations of the present generation are met without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their needs and aspirations; (iii) to prevent accidents with radiological consequences
and to mitigate their consequences should they occur during any stage of spent fuel or radioactive waste
management.
Table 6.1 Selected internationally agreed goals related to chemicals and waste
STATE AND TRENDS
The fourth Global Environment Outlook (2007) indicated that
data were incomplete at the global level, making it a challenge
for many regions to evaluate the magnitude of chemical
contamination and its impacts on the environment and human
health. Little has changed in five years and a worldwide effort is
needed to fill this gap. The forthcoming UNEP Global Chemicals
Outlook report should assist: it aims to provide a framework for
assessing and setting priorities to stimulate further international
action on sound management of chemicals.
Chemicals and wastes: data and indicators
The lack of data on existing chemicals, and the rapid
technological changes that bring new chemicals to the
Chemicals and Waste 173
Figure 6.1 Transmission of national reports by Parties to the Basel Convention, 1999–2009
market, have hindered the production of an established set of
indicators with time-series data that can be used to identify
the state and trends of chemicals and wastes. Several possible
indicators to fill this gap are proposed below. In addition,
extensive investment in collating the required data and
solidifying the knowledge base is required to construct longterm
time series.
Underlying data on waste generation, treatment and recycling
are difficult to obtain. Some are available on hazardous
waste through reports to the Secretariat of the Basel
Convention (Figure 6.1), providing information on the quantity,
characteristics, destination and mode of treatment or disposal
of hazardous waste that is subject to international movement,
but even this is incomplete and unverified – as was reported in
2011 to the tenth Conference of the Parties to the Convention
(UNEP 2011a). Global data on non-hazardous waste generation
and disposal have not been systematically reported and are
therefore unsatisfactory. As stated by the UN Secretary-General
in his May 2011 report to the Commission on Sustainable
Development: “The barriers to effective management and
minimization include lack of data, information, and knowledge
on waste scenarios, lack of comprehensive regulations and
weak enforcement of existing legislation, weak technical
and organizational capacities, poor public awareness and
cooperation, and lack of funds.” (UNCSD 2011)
There is an urgent need to improve the availability and
quality of these basic datasets, with a focus on comparability
between countries, timeliness and coherence over time, and
interpretability. As waste is increasingly seen as a potential
resource, waste data and indicators should be more closely
linked to economic and social information systems and material
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
Source: Basel Convention 2011
Number of Parties
Reporting Parties
Box 6.2 Johannesburg Plan of Implementation
(JPOI) (WSSD 2002) Paragraph 23
Issue
The sound management of chemicals throughout their life
cycle for the protection of human health and the environment
Related goals
To ensure, by 2020, that chemicals are used and produced
in ways that lead to the minimization of significant adverse
effects on human health and the environment
Indicators
Number of signatory countries to the three conventions on
chemicals and wastes (Basel, Rotterdam, Stockholm); number
of implementation plans being put in place by these countries
Global trends
Some progress
Most vulnerable communities
Labour force, women and children in developing countries,
consumers worldwide
Regions of greatest concern
Africa, Latin America and Asia
flow accounting. The measurability issue is critical to assess
waste generation, including municipal, industrial, agricultural,
mining, military, radioactive and nuclear.
Part 1: State and Trends174
Figure 6.2 Chemical sales by country, 2009
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
US$, billion
China
United
States
Japan
Germany
France
Brazil
Republic
of Korea
Italy
UK
India
Netherlands
Spain
Belgium
Mexico
Ireland
Canada
Russia
Switzerland
Singapore
Chile
Australia
Israel
Malaysia
Iran
Indonesia
Thailand
Saudi
Arabia
Argentina
Poland
Source: OECD 2010b
Three indicators to help inform governments and municipalities
of industry performance and progress are highlighted here. It is
imperative that data for these indicators are generated to guide
decision making on sound global management of wastes. The
key indicators proposed are:
•	 quantity and types of waste – solid, organic, hazardous and
non-hazardous – managed or finally disposed of;
•	 waste and hazardous waste generation per person; and
•	 the amount of municipal or household waste, industrial solid
waste and hazardous waste that is recycled.
Status and trends of the chemical industry
The chemical industry is a major driver of economic growth and
its performance is a leading indicator of economic development.
In 2008 the global chemicals industry had an estimated turnover
of about US$3.7 trillion (OECD 2010a) and was growing at 3.5 per
cent per year. More than 20 million people around the globe are
employed by it directly or indirectly, and it is an intensive energy
consumer and a ubiquitous generator of emissions.
While companies in the countries of the Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) continue
to account for the bulk of world production (74.5 per cent in
2004), the OECD’s share is now 9 per cent less than in 1970.
Much of this shift has been caused by the major emerging
economies, particularly the BRIC countries (Brazil, Russia,
India and China). In 2004, China accounted for most BRIC
production (48 per cent), followed by Brazil and India (20 per
cent each), and Russia (12 per cent) (OECD 2008b). Chemical
consumption in developing countries is likewise growing much
faster than in developed countries, and could account for a
third of global consumption by 2020. At the same time, some
data show that developed countries are reducing chemical
use. For example, overall use of pesticides in OECD countries
declined by 5 per cent during 1990–2002, although trends
vary from country to country (OECD 2008a). Total releases and
transfers of the 152 pesticides that are common to the United
States and Canada dropped by 18 per cent and the production
of ozone-depleting substances almost stopped; emissions of
acid rain precursors dropped by 48 per cent, ozone precursors
by 38 per cent and non-methane volatile organic compounds by
26 per cent. Nonetheless, international cooperation between
all governments is needed to build capacity, share information
and promote effective chemicals management globally (OECD
2008b). Figure 6.2 shows the sales data of the world’s major
chemical-producing countries.
Large-scale chemical plant at night. © Tetsuo Morita/iStock
Chemicals and Waste 175
Waste as an issue of global significance
The growing interdependence of the global economy along with
the increasing generation and complexity of waste worldwide
can lead countries to unsound waste management and disposal
operations, and there may come a point when related costs
are such that the economy and public services fail to keep
up. Integrated policies are required to support sustainable
economic development through recycling, recovery, reuse and
other operations aimed at reducing both the use of natural
resources and the quantities of waste, as it is inevitable that
some resource inputs to industrial production are returned to
the environment as waste, and may be hazardous. A critical
issue is to reverse current trends in waste generation, which
would require a high level of commitment to minimize both
quantities and levels of hazard. Furthermore, unsound recycling
comes with the risk of pollution and increased human exposure
to toxic substances. Recycling can also be misused as a disguise
for criminal operations.
The introduction of many new chemical substances to the
market leads to the production of new kinds of wastes. In many
regions, hazardous waste streams are mixed with municipal
or solid wastes and then either dumped or burned in the open
(UN-Habitat 2010). This raises issues of environmental and social
justice, as the people most affected by such precarious practices
are usually the poor who live and work adjacent to dump sites.
Through globalization, materials may be produced in one
country or region, used in another and managed as waste in
a third. Electrical and electronic equipment provides a case
in point (Schluepa et al. 2009; Cui and Forssberg 2003). The
treatment of end-of-life electronics, including toxic substances
and plastics with associated flame-retardants as well as
precious metals, exemplifies the two sides of this business. The
original equipment has the potential to contribute to protecting
human health, supporting livelihoods and creating jobs, while
also promoting a shift from waste to resources that supports
economic development, energy efficiency and the conservation
of natural resources. However, unsound or inadequate waste
management can have profound human health impacts and
cause serious harm to the environment. Extending the useful life
of electrical and electronic equipment and using less harmful
substances in these products is one way to reduce the waste
burden and its accompanying hazards.
Municipal waste
The unsound management of waste can lead to mutually
reinforcing undesirable effects. It can pollute and contaminate
the environment, pose a threat to human health and represent
a loss of resources in the form of both materials and energy.
The recent UN-Habitat report on solid waste management in
cities refers to the escalating challenge of managing it across
the globe, and amply demonstrates the complexity and variety
of issues faced, including the difficulty of achieving objectives
when progress goes unrecorded, stating for example that
“waste reduction is desirable but, typically, it is not monitored
anywhere” (UN-Habitat 2010).
The quantity of municipal waste generated in OECD countries
has risen steeply since 1980, exceeding an estimated 650
million tonnes in 2007 (556 kg per person). In most countries
for which data are available, increased affluence associated
with economic growth and changes in consumption patterns
tend to generate higher levels of waste per person. Over the
past 20 years, however, waste generation has risen less rapidly
than either GDP or expenditure on private consumption, with
a slow-down in recent years. The amount and composition of
municipal waste going to final disposal depend on national
waste management practices. Despite improvements in these
practices, only a few countries have succeeded in reducing the
quantity of solid waste for disposal (OECD 2010b).
Box 6.3 Waste in the OECD
Municipal waste constitutes a significant percentage of the total
waste a country generates (OECD 2008b), with annual figures
ranging from 0.4 to 0.8 tonnes per person, and solid waste
generation increasing at an estimated rate of about 0.5–0.7 per cent
per year. Waste complexity is also increasing with the co-disposal
of assorted waste types: biodegradable components currently
account for almost 50 per cent of municipal solid waste and
electronic waste (e-waste) for 5–15 per cent. The management of
waste is further complicated by the range and diversity of waste
generators, from mining and a wide variety of manufacturers
through agricultural and medical waste to household rubbish. In
addition, the sound management of municipal waste constitutes
a sizable and continuous part of a municipality’s budget.
Many countries do not have the infrastructure to deal with ever
more complex waste streams. Nor do many have the regulatory
and physical infrastructure to derive some rebate from the
recyclable materials that are inevitably part of municipal waste.
Municipal truck with robotic arm collecting residential waste
for recycling. © Paul Vasarhelyi/iStock
Part 1: State and Trends176
Life-cycle thinking: identifying the range of impacts
from chemicals and wastes
What ultimately determines how humans and ecosystems
are exposed to toxic chemicals is defined by their life-cycle
characteristics. Releases of substances not only occur during
chemical production but also during the use of products
containing chemicals (Figure 6.3), and finally at their disposal.
Life-cycle thinking promotes an integrated approach to the
sustainable production and consumption of such substances.
The entire life cycle of resource use, from extraction and
production/manufacture through consumption/use to postconsumption
disposal, produces undesirable environmental
impacts from emissions and wastes. These impacts can include
unintended side effects such as endocrine disruption, which
directly interferes with growth and development in most animals,
and can also affect people (WHO 2002). Life-cycle analysis
helps understand such impacts, but, while a useful tool, it can
be extremely complex. Too often, when problems are identified,
shifts to alternative chemicals that have the same intended
properties may result in further unexpected or undesirable
outcomes (Muir and Howard 2010).
The latest materials to raise concern are those arising from
synthetic biology and engineered nanomaterials. With the
accelerated pace at which new technologies and chemicals are
being deployed (Poliakoff et al. 2002), a different approach
Water and food
safety
Naturally occurring
contaminants
e.g. arsenic and fluoride
in water, natural toxins
Raw materials
e.g. fossil fuels,
raw chemicals
Manufacture
and transport
Use and
disposalCombustion
Combustion products
e.g. indoor and outdoor
air pollutants
Waste and by-products
e.g. e-waste, POPs
Manufactured products
e.g. industrial and
agricultural chemicals,
petroleum products
Human and
environmental
exposure
Chemical safety
Occupational,
transport and
chemical safely
Occupational,
chemical, food and
water safety
Chemical and
product safety
Waste management,
chemical, food and
water safety
Transport and
health, air quality
Note: Dashed lines are management options; solid lines correspond to the life cycle. Source: Adapted from Prüss-Ustün et al. 2011
Figure 6.3 Life-cycle analysis of chemicals
is needed in which their implications are systematically and
comprehensively assessed before they reach production. The use
of green chemistry principles in chemical design and the adoption
of clean production processes may help to prevent problems at
a later stage. While this is happening in some parts of the world
through the use of exposure models – for example by the Canadian
Centre for Environmental Modelling and Chemistry (CEMC 2012)
– for some technologies and chemicals, life-cycle analysis has yet
to become a universal systematic approach. This may well require
new forms of international governance (Finnveden et al. 2009).
The high number and diversity of chemicals and the complexity of
their life cycles inevitably lead to a situation where the scientific
understanding of the impacts of chemicals, and the regulatory
schemes used to manage them, lag behind technological and
economic developments.
Poverty and exposure to chemicals: vulnerable groups
The overwhelming majority of impacts from unsafe chemical
use and unsound waste disposal – including death, impairment
of health and ecosystem degradation – occur in situations
of poverty (Sexton et al. 2011). Increased risks of exposure
to toxic and hazardous chemicals and wastes predominantly
affect the poor, who routinely face such risks because of their
occupation, poor living standards and lack of knowledge
about the detrimental impacts of exposure to these chemicals
and wastes. Many of the poor enter the informal sector of the
Chemicals and Waste 177
Shacks along a polluted waterway in Manila, Philippines.
© Marcus Lindström/iStock
economy where they may encounter new kinds of toxic hazards
such as electronic and electrical waste (e-waste). Risk is not only
related to the dose they receive from such exposure, but also to
important factors such as age, nutritional status and co-exposure
to other chemicals. Children are particularly susceptible to the
negative health impacts of chemicals due to their rapid growth
and development and greater exposure relative to body weight
(Sheffield and Landrigan 2011).
A recent study by the World Health Organization (WHO) (PrüssUstün
et al. 2011) indicated that 4.9 million deaths were
Samples of polyethylene pellets were collected at 56 beaches in 29
countries and analysed for concentrations of organochlorine compounds.
PCB concentrations – shown here as nanograms per gram – were highest
in pellets collected in the United States, Western Europe and Japan. They
were lowest in samples collected in tropical Asia and Africa.This spatial
pattern reflects regional differences in the use of PCBs.
PCB concentration
nanograms per gram
Source: UNEP 2011b0
500
600
400
300
200
100
Hawaii
Chile
Netherlands
United Kingdom
France (2 746)
Portugal Greece TurkeyItaly
China
Japan
Ghana
Australia
Philippines
Indonesia
Malaysia Singapore
India Viet Nam
Argentina
Brazil
South
Africa
Hong
Kong
Mozambique
Barbados
Trinidad
and Tobago
United States
Costa
Rica
Figure 6.4 PCBs in beached plastics
attributable to environmental exposure to chemicals in 2004.
Indoor smoke from the use of solid fuels, outdoor air pollution and
second-hand smoke are among the most critical causes. The study
concluded that the known burden of chemicals, while considerable,
is an underestimate because data on many chemicals are scarce.
Changes in the global production, trade and use of chemicals
and the concomitant production of hazardous wastes are not
always accompanied by corresponding control measures,
thus increasing the risk of releasing hazardous chemicals
into the environment. It is estimated that there are 2 million
contaminated sites in Europe, the United States and the Russian
Federation alone. Data for developing countries and economies
in transition are more difficult to obtain, but indications are
worrying. The Global Inventory Project – which involves the
Blacksmith Institute together with the United Nations Industrial
Development Organization (UNIDO), the Green Cross and the
European Commission – is currently assessing the state of
contaminated areas in 80 countries worldwide, with trace metal
and pesticide pollution among the ten most problematic types of
contamination (Blacksmith Institute 2011). This is the first such
attempt to give governments, international organizations and
affected communities aggregated data for decision making.
Marine pollution
The oceans cover 71 per cent of the Earth’s surface and are
polluted to varying degrees, threatening marine life, fisheries,
mangroves, coral reefs, and estuarine and coastal zones, with
Part 1: State and Trends178
Related goals
To protect human health and the environment from POPs
Indicators
Trends in levels of selected POPs in human tissue;
trends in atmospheric levels of selected POPs such as
PCBs (conventional POPs, regulated for many years)
and endosulfan (emerging POPs, added to the list in the
Stockholm Convention in 2010)
Global trends
Some progress; it is too early to use the above indicators for
evaluation
Most vulnerable communities and areas of greatest concern
Arctic communities, in particular children; communities in areas
with indoor residual spraying of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
(DDT); children of the world exposed to POPs
Box 6.5 Human health, the environment and
persistent organic pollutants
some 80 per cent of the pollution coming from land-based
sources (UNEP 2011b). Common man-made pollutants include
pesticides, chemical fertilizers, heavy metals, detergents,
oil, sewage, plastics and other solids (UNEP 2011b). Many of
these pollutants accumulate in the deep oceans and sediments
(Jacobsen et al. 2010; Zarfl and Matthies 2010; Wania and Daly
2002), where they are consumed by small marine organisms
and may be reintroduced to the global food chain. Some 20 per
cent of marine pollution originates from direct disposal into the
oceans: regular discharges of oily wastes from ships, accidental
oil spills and untreated sewage disposal in enclosed areas such
as the Mediterranean are threats to marine ecosystems (UNEP
2011b). Figure 6.4 shows the occurrence of PCB in beached
plastics around the globe. Some of the most harmful pollutants
also come from diffuse sources such as air pollution.
Persistent organic pollutants
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are a group of chemicals
with common features including persistence, bioaccumulation
and long-range transport. Combined with their toxicity, these
characteristics have significant adverse effects both on wildlife,
including marine mammals, and on human populations,
in particular such vulnerable groups as nursing mothers
and infants. The health effects of exposure to POPs include
neuro-developmental disorders, endocrine disruption and
carcinogenicity (Diamanti-Kandarakis et al. 2009).
The Stockholm Convention on POPs was adopted in 2001 in
response to an urgent need for global action, and entered
into force in 2004. It currently has 177 Parties and calls for
documentation of the amounts of POPs that are still present in
different countries and for global monitoring of these substances
in human tissue (blood and milk). This is one of two indicators
proposed for monitoring and assessing the status and trends
of POPs in the environment and their impact on human health.
The Stockholm Convention established a Global Monitoring
Plan as a source of globally consistent and reliable data.
Collection of data is at an early stage and more will become
available in the coming years, but individual studies already
provide historical and regional trends for some substances. An
example is DDT, for which Ritter et al. (2011) report global time
series of concentrations in human tissue from many individual
measurements (Figure 6.5). In general, DDT body burdens have
fallen over recent decades, but are still considerably higher in
tropical than northern regions. Where DDT is used for malaria
control, concentrations are still very high and the decrease is less
pronounced than elsewhere.
The other indicator for POPs is trends of selected atmospheric POPs
in both urban/industrialized and remote regions. Concentrations
of these substances in the air follow changes in emissions more
closely than concentrations in food and human tissue, and reflect
the effect of atmospheric long-range transport. Hung et al. (2010)
provide a summary of long-term time trends of various POPs
measured at Arctic monitoring stations. In general, concentrations
of most substances in Arctic air show a falling trend, but
The world fleet comprises more than 80 000 vessels of
which around 50 000 merchant ships carry out 90 per cent
of international trade. Every ship generates waste during its
operation or when transporting cargo, including sludge, oily
tank washings known as slops, rubbish from the crew, and
cargo residues. Depending on its size, a ship can generate
a few hundred tonnes of slops during a voyage. With 50 000
ships of more than 500GT (gross tonnage) in the world fleet,
and assuming an average of ten port calls per ship, half a
million port calls take place annually (Mikelis 2010). Port
states are required by the International Convention for the
Prevention of Pollution from Ships 1973, as modified by its
1978 Protocol (MARPOL 73/78), to provide adequate port
reception facilities to collect waste generated on board ships.
Illicit discharges of slops represent a major source of marine
pollution. For instance, according to the Regional Marine
Pollution Emergency Response Centre for the Mediterranean
Sea (REMPEC), there are more than 2 500 illicit discharges
of ship waste in the Mediterranean Sea annually. The 1972
London Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by
Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, along with its 1996
Protocol, is one of the first global conventions to protect the
marine environment from the effects of human activities and
has been in force since 1975. Its objective is to promote the
effective control of all sources of marine pollution and to
take all practicable steps to prevent pollution of the sea by
dumping of wastes and other matter.
Box 6.4 Waste generated on board ship
Chemicals and Waste 179
Figure 6.5 DDT levels in humans, 1960–2008
Source: Ritter et al. 2011
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
1 000 000
100 000
10 000
1 000
100
10
Nanograms per gram of lipid weight (note logarithmic scale)
Tropical general population
Tropical highly exposed population
Northern general population
Northern highly exposed population
Figure 6.6 Trends in two PCBs from air monitoring data at two sites in the northern hemisphere, 1995–2005
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Picograms per m3 (natural logarithm)
Seasonal cycle
Smoothed trend
Picograms per m3 (natural logarithm)
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Alert, Canada Storhofdi, Iceland
PCB-180 PCB-180
PCB-52 PCB-52
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Source: Adapted from Hung et al. 2010
half-lives are often long – five to ten years and sometimes even
longer. In recent years the decrease has come to a halt for several
compounds, and some concentrations have been observed to be on
the rise, for example polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), chlordane
and DDT. Long-term trends for two PCBs are shown in Figure 6.6.
The environmental behaviour of POPs is strongly affected by
temperature and other climate-related factors (UNEP/AMAP 2010;
Macleod et al. 2005), including precipitation patterns, wind
fields and extreme weather events. In general, climate change is
expected to cause greater mobilization of POPs from primary and
secondary sources as well as increased airborne transport (Lamon
et al. 2009). It is unclear to what extent higher temperatures will
accelerate the degradation of POPs, but the melting of ice in which
they have been held for decades contributes to rising amounts of
POPs and other pollutants in the environment (Bogdal et al. 2010).
Pesticides including POPs
Pesticides are compounds designed to kill specific pests but
often reach non-target organisms as well. In one study, more than
90 per cent of sampled water and fish were found to be
contaminated by several pesticides and estimates indicated that
Part 1: State and Trends180
about 3 per cent of exposed agricultural workers suffer from an
episode of acute pesticide poisoning every year (Thunduyil et al.
2008). It is therefore imperative to know the nature of exposure
and causes of contamination, and to identify action that can
be taken to reduce pesticide levels in terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems. Long-term pesticide sales data constitute the main
global and regional indicators of pesticide use (Brodesser et al.
2006). The last 25 years have seen a reduction in insecticide
sales due to mammalian toxicity concerns, although general
pesticide sales increased from US$5.4 billion in 2004 to
US$7.5 billion by 2009 in the Latin American region, with
2,4-D, paraquat, methamidophos, methomyl, endosulfan and
chlorpyrifos accounting for a high proportion of these sales
(Brodesser et al. 2006).
Globally, the main 15 pesticides found in streams and
groundwater include the herbicides atrazine and di-ethylatrazine,
metolachlor, cyanazine and alachlor, and the insecticide
diazinon. However, regarding fish, riverbed sediments and soils,
the main pesticides still include persistent insecticides, heavily
used in the 1960s and currently banned in most developed
countries, such as DDT, dieldrin and chlordane. Moreover,
endosulfan sulphate, the metabolite of endosulfan still in use in
many countries, is a very common contaminant of surface and
groundwater (Ondarza et al. 2011). Although the use of most
organochlorine insecticides came to an end 10–25 years ago,
they remain in the environment at levels of concern (Gonzalez
et al. 2010; Ondarza et al. 2010).
More than 70 per cent of the populations of low-income countries
live in rural areas, and 97 per cent of rural populations are
engaged in agriculture. While developing countries account
for just one-third of global pesticide use, the vast majority of
pesticide poisonings occur in these countries (Brodesser
et al. 2006).
The extent of human exposure and the health effects of
pesticides under future climate change conditions will depend
on the adoption of less toxic practices that take account of
changes in factors such as temperature and precipitation
(Boxall et al. 2009).
Obsolete pesticides
Pesticides become obsolete when they can no longer be used
for their intended purpose. There are four major international
agreements for their regulation: the Stockholm, Rotterdam and
Basel Conventions and the 1998 Protocol on POPs to the 1979
Geneva Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution
(UNECE Geneva Convention 1979/98). It is difficult to estimate
exact quantities of obsolete pesticides because many are very
old and documentation is scarce. Parties to the Stockholm
Convention are in the process of collecting information on
nine POPs that were added to the convention’s annex in 2009,
including hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH), and a good deal is
known about dump sites of the latter even though some smaller
sites may be missed. However, amounts of obsolete pesticides
that do not fall under the Stockholm Convention remain vague
and can only be roughly calculated. On the basis of experience
in Africa and the Middle East, UNEP estimates that on average
POP pesticides make up only around 30 per cent of all existing
obsolete pesticides (UNEP 2000).
Country-by-country assessments carried out by the International
HCH and Pesticide Association (IHPA 2009) suggest that obsolete
pesticides could amount to between 256 000 and 263 000 tonnes
in the countries of the former Soviet Union, the Southern Balkans
and new Member States of the European Union (defined as
EU-12, EU accession countries, the countries of the European
Neighbourhood Policy (ENP), the Russian Federation and Central
Asia together), costing approximately US$780 million to dispose
of, while some estimates for Africa by UNEP Chemicals suggested
A farmer, wearing no protective equipment, sprays his vines with pesticide. © Alistair Scott/iStock
Chemicals and Waste 181
Table 6.2 Quantities of obsolete pesticides
Region Estimatedquantities
(tonnes)
Estimated disposal
costs at US$3 000–
5 000 per tonne
(US$ million)
Africa 27 395 82.2–137.0
Asia 6 463 19.4–32.3
Eastern Europe 240 998 722.9–1 204.9
Latin America and
the Caribbean
11 284 33.9–56.4
Near East 4 528 13.6–22.6
Total 290 668 872–1 453
Note: The latest updates given by FAO vary from 1994 to 2006.
Source: FAO 2012
that there may be as much as 120 000 tonnes remaining (UNEP
2002), costing some US$200–250 million to dispose of, applying
UN Food and Agriculture Organization cost estimates (FAO 2002).
These assessments alone identify 376 000–383 000 tonnes for
disposal at a cost of US$968–1 040 million. The most recent
FAO figures, shown in Table 6.2, indicate that there are some
290 000 tonnes of pesticide stockpiles with estimated disposal
costs of US$3 000–5 000 per tonne (FAO 2012).
The Africa Stockpiles Programme (ASP), launched in 2005,
aimed to clear all obsolete pesticides and contaminated
waste in Africa within 10–15 years and to promote prevention
measures and capacity building. It is very likely that the costs of
inaction by far exceed the costs of cleaning up. As underlined by
the European Environment Agency (EEA), downplaying the costs
of inaction is a frequent phenomenon (Koppe and Keys 2001)
and analysis suggests that the costs of inaction are high
(OECD 2008c).
Metals, metalloids and heavy metals
Inorganic pollutants, including metals and metalloids, also
adversely impact human populations on a global scale
(Blacksmith Institute 2011). Unlike organic chemicals, metallic
elements do not degrade and may accumulate in the environment
and become increasingly bio-available over time. Their impacts
are often most severe in the developing countries where they are
mined, processed, used and recycled with limited environmental
control and regulation. Populations in more developed countries
also suffer from historic and on-going industrial emissions
of pollutants, as well as from associated releases of other
pollutants such as sulphur oxides, which cause acid rain, and
acid mine drainage (Carn et al. 2007). Contamination even
extends to Antarctica, as industrial pollutant emissions are
carried there by long-range atmospheric transport from other
continents (Caroli et al. 2001). Pollutants can also be re-released
after decades as glaciers melt (Geisz et al. 2008).
Poisoning by naturally occurring arsenic is a global problem
(Ravenscroft et al. 2009). More than a decade ago it was estimated
that 130 million people around the world have been exposed
to toxic levels of arsenic in drinking water, above the WHO
recommended limit of 10 parts per billion (Smith and Lingus
2000), but there is mounting evidence that arsenic toxicity occurs
at levels below that standard (Wasserman et al. 2004). There are
also many unexplored sources of arsenic and the total number of
people affected may be higher (Huang et al. 2011). Associated
toxicities include diabetes and skin, kidney, lung, neurological and
vascular diseases – most notably blackfoot disease which leads to
gangrene – and bladder cancer. These diseases are most prevalent
in vulnerable populations living on subsistence diets of arseniccontaminated
foods and with limited access to clean water,
minerals and nutrients, which partially counteract that toxicity.
Arsenic pollution in Bangladesh, which resulted from drilling wells
to protect the population from surface waters contaminated with
pathogens (Lokuge et al. 2004), has been described as “the largest
poisoning of a population in history” (Smith and Lingus 2000).
Populations in both developed and developing countries may
be exposed to arsenic at contaminated sites left behind by the
formerly widespread use of arsenic as a pesticide.
Lead is among the most prominent of the global contaminants
(Rauch and Pacyna 2009), with several activities being
responsible for acute lead poisoning. There are on-going
human health problems at previous mining and smelting sites,
including in Kabwe, Nigeria (Nweke and Sanders 2009) and
the Rudnaya River Valley, Russia (von Braun et al. 2002), where
high lead levels in children persisted after the smelters in both
areas were closed, and in La Oroya, Peru, where 99.7 per cent
of the children living nearest the smelter were found to have
dangerously high levels of lead in their systems (Fraser 2009).
On a global scale, some 85 per cent of lead-acid batteries
are recycled, but there are recycling sites such as in Dakar,
The Lavender red copper open pit mine in Bisbee, Arizona, United States.
© Claude Dagenais/iStock
Part 1: State and Trends182
Note: MTHM – metric tonne of heavy metal; TBq – Tera-Becquerel.
Source: IAEA 2008b
Senegal (Haefliger et al. 2009), where the average blood-lead
concentration of children was at 130 micrograms per decilitre,
enough to cause acute toxicity or even death (ATSDR 2007).
Children may also be exposed to lead in paints, which has
been phased out in developed countries but persists in some
developing ones (Lanphear et al. 1998). Electronic waste
recycling can also involve exposure to lead in solder, and there
are sites such as Guiyu, China (Huo et al. 2007), where 82
per cent of the children tested in the village had blood-lead
concentrations above the US Centers for Disease Control action
level of 10 micrograms per decilitre (ATSDR 2007). Although that
level is two orders above the estimated natural lead level, there
is no established lower threshold for lead toxicity in humans
(Flegal and Smith 1992).
Most coals contain tiny proportions of mercury, so industrial
mercury fluxes to the biosphere are projected to increase
with greater fossil fuel combustion (Soerensen et al. 2010).
While large amounts of mercury are thus released into the
environment from numerous industrial activities, reports of
acute neurotoxicity from mercury poisoning are now primarily
associated with its use to amalgamate gold in artisanal mining,
which is practised in more than 50 countries (Bose-O’Reilly
et al. 2008). In Indonesia and Zimbabwe, all of the children
tested in two mining areas were found to have elevated mercury
levels and corresponding signs of mercury intoxication, whether
they were directly involved in mining or not (Bose-O’Reilly
et al. 2008). This poisoning of children is of special concern
because mercury, even at sub-lethal levels, is a neurotoxin that
can permanently impair development and – like some other
toxins – foster auto-immune resistance, making children and
adults more vulnerable to infection and disease, as has been
found with artisanal gold miners in Brazil (Feingold et al. 2010).
Currently, UNEP is convening an intergovernmental negotiating
committee to prepare a global legally binding instrument on
mercury: more than 100 countries are participating and a global
treaty text is expected to be ready for adoption in late 2013
(Selin and Selin 2006).
A number of other metals such as zinc, copper and manganese
could have harmful human and environmental impacts at
certain levels. Cadmium, which was once used in pigments
and for electroplating, is the most toxic, and contaminated
sites may remain. Its main uses now are in rechargeable nickelcadmium
batteries, and collection and recycling of these items
must be efficient if it is not to be released to the environment.
Cadmium is also released into the environment by some fossil
fuel combustion, and is in addition a natural contaminant in
phosphate deposits, so may be transferred in fertilizers and
taken up by root vegetables (Jarup and Akesson 2009).
Radioactive material
Radioactive material has been in use since the 1890s, increasing
significantly with the advent of nuclear energy in the 1940s
and its exploitation in weapons, with a concomitant increase in
the generation of radioactive waste and contaminated sites. In
addition, the use of radioactive materials in industry, research
and medicine continues and increases, as do the mining and
processing of minerals containing elevated concentrations of
naturally occurring radionuclides. Some contaminated sites
have been remediated at significant cost, while others remain to
be addressed. The rising cost and reduced availability of fossil
fuels have from time to time favoured the adoption of nuclear
power, as have recent concerns over greenhouse gas emissions.
However, social attitudes to nuclear accidents such as those at
Three Mile Island and Chernobyl – which are rare but can have
a very high impact – have exerted a restraining influence. It was
predicted in 2008 that the use of nuclear energy would increase
by 15–45 per cent by 2020 and by 25–95 per cent by 2030 (IAEA
2008a), but future activity is likely to be affected by responses to
the more recent Fukushima disaster.
Radioactive waste takes many physical and chemical forms and
has differing radioactive properties. The international system
of classification (IAEA 2009a) links waste classes (exempt, very
short lived, very low level, low level, intermediate level, high level)
to options for management and disposal. Disposal is the final
Table 6.3 Global inventory of radioactive waste, 2004
Waste source Low- and intermediate-level
waste
Spent fuel High-level waste Mining
Volume
(million m3
)
Activity
(million TBq)
Mass
(million MTHM)
Activity
(million TBq)
Volume
(million m3
)
Activity
(million TBq)
Volume
(million m3
)
Activity
(TBq million)
Nuclear power 2 1.2 0.17 28 000 0.034 42 1 600 0.028
Industrial or
medical use
2 1.2
Weapons 4 0.7 0.8 31 250 0.0046
Total 8 3.1 0.17 28 000 0.8 73 1 850 0.033
Chemicals and Waste 183
step in the management of radioactive waste, generally in nearsurface
or deep land-based facilities. Apart from high-level and
some intermediate-level waste, the majority has been disposed
of in such facilities. Table 6.3 presents an estimate of the global
inventory of radioactive waste (IAEA 2008b).
About a hundred near-surface facilities exist, and others for
disposal of waste of various levels are under development in
a number of countries, although the process of selecting and
designing a site is often contentious. Many nuclear reactors
are ageing and will need to be decommissioned in the near
future, resulting in radioactive waste and signalling the need for
disposal facilities and trained professionals to operate them. As
of 2 February 2012, 435 nuclear power reactors with a combined
capacity of about 368 gigawatts are in operation in 30 countries,
of which around 75 per cent are more than 20 years old, and
63 plants with a combined capacity of 61 gigawatts are under
construction in 14 countries (European Nuclear Society 2012).
Contracting Parties to the Joint Convention on Radioactive Waste
and Spent Fuel increased steadily after its establishment in 1997
to number 58 in April 2011, and are committed to ensuring a high
level of safety in radioactive waste management. At the 2009
triennial review meeting, the reports of 45 Contracting Parties
were reviewed with the conclusion that there is a commitment
to improve safety, make progress in building, maintaining and
implementing legal/regulatory frameworks, and observe good
practices in national radioactive waste management strategies
and policies (IAEA 2009b). Despite progress since the 2006
review meeting, however, the 2009 meeting concluded that
much still needed to be done to meet the following challenges:
•	 implementation of national policies for the long-term
management of spent fuel, including disposal;
•	 siting, construction and operation of spent fuel and
radioactive waste disposal facilities;
•	 management of legacy wastes;
•	 monitoring of disused sealed sources and recovery of orphan
sources;
•	 knowledge management and human resources development;
and
•	 provision of financial resources for liabilities.
There has been a growing trend for disposal facilities to undergo
international peer-reviewed safety demonstration (IAEA 2006).
In addition, the 2010 General Conference of the International
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) created an International Working
Forum on Regulatory Supervision of Legacy Sites (IAEA 2010),
aimed at enhancing regulatory regimes, the professional
development of regulators and the application of safety and
environmental assessment.
EMERGING ISSUES
Policy making and regulatory processes are naturally prone to
lag behind rapid changes taking place in the global production
and distribution of chemicals and wastes. The challenge is to
protect human health and the environment from the undesirable
effects of chemicals and wastes even when there are inadequate
quantitative data and the potential life-cycle hazards of both old
and new materials are incompletely understood.
Nanomaterial and nanoparticles
Many new materials are produced as minute particles of a
nanometre – or one-billionth of a metre – in size, and they
exhibit chemical and biological properties that are quite
different from those of the corresponding bulk materials.
Commercial applications of nanomaterials include, for example,
food packaging, personal care products, cosmetics and
pharmaceuticals. Their unique properties make nanomaterials
useful in cancer therapies, the neutralization of pollution or
improvement of energy efficiency. However, safety testing is in
its infancy and governments have been slow to adapt existing
regulations to these new materials, even though they are widely
marketed and some potential for human exposure has been
identified (Morris et al. 2010). More research is needed for a better
understanding of workplace and consumer exposure and related
impacts on human health, especially as some of these materials
are known to pass through the skin and are small enough to
penetrate cell membranes and cause toxic effects at cellular and
sub-cellular scales. Furthermore, very little is known about whether
nanomaterials or nanoparticles are released from products when
they are incinerated, buried or degrade over time, so it is possible
that they will pose a serious waste disposal challenge. Sound
decision making on nanotechnology has provoked much debate
among developed-country regulators, and is increasingly doing so
among the regulators of developing countries (Morris et al. 2010).
Plastics in the environment
Plastics are ubiquitous in the environment. They are widely used
in many products and have many formulations. The simple plastic
bag is a prime example of how a utilitarian object can become
an environmental hazard. More than 500 billion plastic bags are
Crates for storing radioactive material. © Clearviewimages/iStock
Part 1: State and Trends184
used every year but many are improperly disposed of, ending
up as marine litter. This significant problem was highlighted in
the UNEP Yearbook 2011 (UNEP 2011b), showing that discarded
plastic debris forms a major component of marine litter, degrading
into micro-pollutants in ocean gyres, fouling beaches in coastal
waters, and entering the food chain where it is consumed by
marine fauna such as turtles and sea birds, weakening or killing
them by affecting their digestion, respiration and reproduction.
There is concern that these plastics also act as transport vectors
of persistent organic pollutants such as PCBs and similar
compounds, with chronic effects on wildlife. The solution is sound
management, preventing the escape or discharge of this material,
yet rates of plastic recycling and reuse vary greatly, from more
than 80 per cent in some EU countries to only a small percentage
in many developing ones. The Global Programme of Action (GPA)
for the protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based
Activities and other local and regional initiatives are seeking to
address this issue (Astudillo et al. 2009; Young et al. 2009).
Electronic waste
The high turnover of equipment in the information and
communication technology industry has caused an increase in
obsolete electrical and electronic products, which in turn has
generated almost uncontrollable volumes of end-of-life products
driving a global trade in e-waste. As the fastest growing waste
stream in the world, estimated at 20-50 million tonnes per year,
e-waste has become one of the major environmental challenges
of the 21st century (Schwarzer et al. 2005). Generated by a wide
range of electrical products, it is of particular interest because it
contains not only hazardous substances including heavy metals
such as mercury and lead, and endocrine-disrupting substances
such as brominated flame retardants (BFRs), but also many
strategic metals such as gold, palladium and rare earth metals
that can be recovered and recycled. E-waste can thereby serve as
a valuable source of secondary raw materials, reducing pressure
on scarce natural resources and the environmental footprint of
the mining industry.
Developing countries nonetheless remain the destination of
most of the e-waste exported from developed countries as
second-hand or used equipment. Yet these countries often
lack the infrastructure, capacity and resources for its sound
management (UNEP 2009), with the informal sector and
vulnerable groups employing crude processing methods such
as open-air burning or acid leaching to recover valuable metals
like copper and gold. In the process, toxic substances in the
waste may be released into the environment, posing a high risk
to ecological and human health. Recent studies have revealed
that by 2016, developing countries will generate twice as much
e-waste as developed countries (Zoeteman et al. 2010), but while
electronic equipment has positive impacts on development and
progress, it can have negative impacts on both human health and
environmental integrity as end-of-life e-waste. This is a growing
environmental and public health issue that threatens attainment
of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in developing
countries and economies in transition.
Endocrine disruptors
Endocrine disruption is the term given to the alteration of
hormonal signals in living systems when they are exposed to
chemical substances. A considerable number of chemicals
have been shown to be endocrine disruptors, affecting the
growth and reproductive and neurological development of many
species, including humans (Waye and Trudeau 2011; Gore
and Patisaul 2010; Toppari et al. 1996; Colborn et al. 1993).
In addition, the numerous chemical substances, both natural
and anthropogenic, that are present in the environment in low
concentrations come together to exacerbate exposure of both
humans and wildlife. Many investigations have been conducted
since publication of the Global Assessment of the State-of-theScience
of Endocrine Disruptors (WHO 2002), and it is clear that
both inorganic and organic substances can affect hormonal
signalling. UNEP has proposed listing this as an emerging policy
issue for listing under the Strategic Approach to International
Chemicals Management (SAICM).
Open burning
In open burning, the pollutants produced by combustion are
released directly to the air and so enter the environment in
uncontrolled ways. Open burning can include forest wildfires,
planned combustion activities such as burning stubble in
preparation for a subsequent grain crop, irresponsible burning
of waste such as domestic rubbish and e-waste, arson-initiated
combustion of scrap tyres, and even public detonation of
fireworks (Lemieux et al. 2004). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs) are always released in these processes, and (in the
case of fireworks) heavy metals such as lead and copper are
also released. PAHs are widespread in the environment in both
developed and developing countries (Barra et al. 2007), and
concern about their carcinogenic properties has led to their
classification as primary pollutants by agencies such as the US
Environmental Protection Agency.Discarded computer circuit boards. © roccomontoya/iStock
Chemicals and Waste 185
Gaps in the understanding of chemical toxicity
Since humans are continually exposed to a multitude of
manufactured chemicals, there is a need to understand the
behaviour of these chemicals and their interaction with
human health and the environment. Previously unsuspected
properties of widely used chemicals present legacy problems
that raise concern in the scientific community and among the
public. For example, of the many chemicals that have been
found to have endocrine-disrupting properties, bisphenol-A
is present in many plastic baby bottles and food can liners,
and phthalate esters in various flexible plastics including
some children’s toys (Hengstler et al. 2011). Consumer
vigilance is not enough to prevent exposure in such cases
because the presence of these chemicals is usually not evident
to the non-expert. This places a heavy responsibility on public
authorities to inform people about potential risks associated
with manufactured chemicals, and on manufacturers to exercise
the extended or individual producer responsibility approach
and to search for alternatives.
Most existing chemical regulations worldwide address the effects
of individual substances. Managing single chemicals is difficult
enough, but there is also concern about gaps in understanding
human exposure to mixtures of chemicals (Rajapakse et al. 2002;
Silva et al. 2002). As mentioned, little has been done to study
the toxicology of mixtures. There is an urgent need for further
risk assessment of the combined exposure of multiple chemicals
– the chemical cocktail or synergistic effects – to human health
and the environment. Integrated environmental risk assessments
based on state-of-the-art dynamic pollutant modelling and
toxicological experiments on chemical cocktails will help quantify
planetary boundaries for chemical pollution (Handoh and Kawai
2011; Rockström et al. 2009).
GAPS AND OUTLOOK
Chemical properties, patterns of use and the
environment
There is a lack of information about the health and environmental
effects of many chemical substances and about the products in
which different types of chemicals are used (OECD 2008b).
Huge gaps in the assessment of chemicals arise from two causes.
First, many were introduced and became established items of
commerce before systematic assessments began. Where there is
mounting evidence of harm or potential harm, action can lead to
regional controls and eventual listing under global conventions,
but most industrial chemicals remain unassessed. Second,
concerns have arisen over hitherto unsuspected properties such
as the endocrine activity of phthalates and bisphenol A, for
example, or long-range transport coupled with bioaccumulation.
Furthermore, academic assessment suggests the potential for
further industrial chemicals and pesticides to qualify as POPs
(Muir and Howard 2010, 2006). It should also be noted that
wastes are often mixed, which makes it extremely difficult to
assess the risks of any chemicals present. In addition, residues
arising from the recycling of hazardous waste may contain a
higher concentration of toxic materials than the recyclable
materials themselves.
Long-term monitoring programmes for POPs in the environment
as well as in human tissue need to be maintained and expanded,
in particular in the southern hemisphere. They are essential for a
better understanding of trends in global chemical pollution and
for the Stockholm Convention’s evaluation of effectiveness.
More extensive work on chemical toxicity inventories is aiming
to fill a significant gap. An example is the European legislation
on Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of
Chemicals (REACH). This has extended the number of chemicals
covered by regulations, notably those that were on the market
before 1981 and previously exempt (Chapter 11).
Limited information on chemicals in products makes it difficult
to document the extent of the risk posed to human health
and the environment. Initiatives such as the ongoing UNEP
Global Chemicals Outlook and the Cost of Inaction (UNEP
Mainstreaming of Chemicals) will help to fill some important
knowledge gaps.
In addition to scientific knowledge gaps, sound chemicals and
waste management is also hampered by a lack of resources,
capacity and compliance monitoring. A lack of education and
training also limits appropriate management of chemicals and
wastes in many developing countries. Increased trade resulting
from free trade agreements can complicate this picture (Vogel
1997), as such agreements may well exert even more pressure
on emerging economies with respect to regulating or restricting
chemical use.
Chemicals, wastes and drinking water
At the global level, about 1.1 billion people do not have access
to a safe water supply and 2.6 billion people do not have access
to adequate sanitation facilities. The associated health impacts
are alarming: 1.7 million deaths per year, of which 90 per cent
are children under five years of age (WHO/UNICEF 2005). The
costs of water pollution may represent between 0.3 and 1.9 per
cent of rural gross domestic product (GDP) (WHO/UNICEF 2005).
Industrial sectors with the potential for significant water pollution
include the chemicals sector, food and beverage sector, textile and
mining industry and pulp and paper sector. The policy framework
for regulating the industrial point sources of water pollution is
well developed in most OECD countries, although some pollutants
such as heavy metals and chlorinated solvents remain a concern.
Increasing attention is being paid to non-point sources, such as
agricultural run-off, which are more difficult to regulate but can
lead to nitrate pollution of water bodies. In addition to efforts
to reduce the run-off of organic pollutants from fertilizers and
manure, organophosphates from pesticides are also a concern.
Studies reviewed by the OECD (2008a, 2008b) suggest that
national measures to reduce agricultural run-off and manage storm
water, including targeted measures to reduce a variety of different
pollutants such as arsenic and nitrates, could yield health benefits
in excess of US$100 million in large OECD economies (Hammer et
al. 2011). In non-OECD countries, the cost of inaction with respect
to unsafe water supply and sanitation is particularly acute.
Part 1: State and Trends186
Box 6.6 Funding: an ongoing challenge
Reinforcing a global response
The Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm Conventions and other
instruments that address chemicals and wastes – including the
Montreal Protocol on Ozone-Depleting Substances, MARPOL,
the London Convention, and regional treaties like the Bamako,
Waigani or Mediterranean Conventions, as well as the future
Minamata Convention on Mercury – represent the foundation
on which to build and consolidate a global response to protect
human health and the environment from the adverse effects of
chemicals and waste. Discussions conducted under the auspices
of these global instruments enable emerging problems to be
foreseen and facilitate the formulation of ways to manage issues
soundly and collectively on a sustainable basis. All these global
legally binding instruments, as well as regional agreements such
as those agreed by the OECD and the European Commission,
share the universal principle of an environmentally sound
management of chemicals and waste. A key feature of this global
architecture is transparency in the collection and dissemination
of information. The EU chemicals legislation, REACH, is
exemplary of such efforts (Hartung and Rovida, 2009). But large
gaps remain, both in addressing the number of chemicals and
nanomaterials present in the market, and in the fact that many
countries are unable to manage hazardous chemicals and waste
in an environmentally sound way.
With the Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm Conventions sharing
the common objective of protecting human health and the
environment from hazardous chemicals and wastes, the Parties
to these agreements have embarked on rationalizing their
operations to improve assistance to countries in managing
chemicals at different stages of their life cycle. This has been
exemplified by the establishment of the International Panel
on Chemical Pollution (IPCP) in 2008, enhanced cooperation
and coordination between the three conventions during their
Much effort at the intergovernmental level goes into identifying
the funding and support needs of capacity building, technical
assistance and institutional strengthening for the sound
management of chemicals and waste in developing countries
and economies in transition. This is reflected in the decisions
of the Conferences of the Parties to the Basel, Rotterdam and
Stockholm Conventions, especially for national implementation
plans. International funding for implementation of the
chemicals and wastes agenda is currently managed and
channelled through the World Bank, Global Environment
Facility (GEF), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP),
UNEP, the United Nations Industrial Development Organization
(UNIDO), the United Nations Institute for Training and Research
(UNITAR), FAO, WHO and the Quick Start Programme of SAICM,
as well as the OECD and regional development banks. Some
funding is also available through private-sector bodies. In
addition, SAICM, the Inter-Organization Programme for the
Sound Management of Chemicals (IOMC), Intergovernmental
Forum on Chemical Safety (IFCS), and Organisation for the
Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) play supportive and
coordinating roles.
The existing approach is hampered by fragmentation,
disconnections and insufficient coordination, and adequate
funding remains a fundamental challenge. For example, lack of
agreement on funding has played a significant part in delaying
establishment of a compliance mechanism for the Stockholm
Convention. As a result, in 2009 the Executive Director of UNEP
launched the Consultative Process on Financing Options for
Chemicals and Wastes to look at overall funding needs and
possibilities. Between 2009 and 2011 participants discussed
four tracks:
•	 mainstreaming of sound management of chemicals and
hazardous wastes;
•	 industry involvement, including private-public partnerships
and the use of economic instruments at the national and
international levels;
•	 a new trust fund similar to the Multilateral Fund; and
•	 introducing safe chemicals and waste management as
a new GEF focal area, expanding the existing POPs focal
area under GEF or establishing a new trust fund under
the GEF.
The final meeting of the Consultative Process in October 2011
resulted in a document outlining an integrated approach
to financing the sound management of chemicals and
wastes (UNEP 2012). This formed the basis of a report by
the UNEP Executive Director to the UNEP Governing Council
Special Session in February 2012, which in turn resulted in
governments requesting the Executive Director for a fullyfledged
proposal on an integrated approach ensuring optimal
funding for the chemicals and wastes sector. A decision on
this is expected at the third SAICM International Conference
on Chemicals Management in September 2012 and the UNEP
Governing Council in 2013.
The follow-up to the Consultative Process is an important
opportunity to raise the profile of financing for sound
management of chemicals and wastes and links to human
health and development, the environment and carbon. It
is an intrinsic component of development and a necessary
objective to bring lasting social, environmental and economic
benefits. Without adequate infrastructure in the key sectors of
health, water, sanitation, energy, transport, information and
communication technology, and disaster management, there
is little hope of protecting people from the risks of exposure to
harmful chemicals, hazardous or radioactive waste and other
waste streams contaminating the environment.
Chemicals and Waste 187
respective Conferences of the Parties in 2008 and 2009, and
their simultaneous extraordinary meetings in Bali, Indonesia,
in February 2010. Since early 2011, the convention secretariats
have been working under a joint Executive Secretary, opening
up the possibility of a more holistic approach to the sound
management of chemicals and waste (Basel Convention 2012).
Outlook
Table 6.4 summarizes the main goals into key themes and uses the
indicators described in this chapter to illustrate progress towards
their achievement. It also makes recommendations for consideration
alongside those from other chapters in Part 1 when developing policy
options and responses as outlined in Parts 2 and 3.
Key issues and goals State and trends Outlook Gaps
1. Provide sound management of chemicals throughout their life cycle and of waste
Sound management of
chemicals
B 17 multilateral agreements are in place and
over 300 activities have been conducted
under the SAICM Global Plan of Action;
23 countries have a functioning national
chemical register; a globally harmonized
system of classification and labelling of
chemicals has been established
The number of developing
countries implementing sound
chemicals management is
increasing
Strengthening of the life-cycle approach; a more
integrated global framework for risk assessment
and risk management of chemicals; plans for the
implementation of sound management of chemicals,
most notably for developing countries heavily involved
in the production, trade and use of chemicals,
particularly in Asia and the Pacific and Latin America
Sound management of
waste
B Objective standards of environmentally
sound waste management are not optimal;
practices vary widely according to local
norms and conditions; cities face increasing
problems with management of municipal
waste, poor monitoring and open burning,
and illegal traffic in waste
Waste production will increase
according to current trends in
consumption and trade
Data on waste
Improve resource
efficiency
C Efficient ways of transforming waste into
energy, applicable in developing countries,
are lacking
Environmentally sound energy
recovery will benefit some
situations if balanced with
emphasis on waste recovery for
reuse and recycling rather than
competing with energy solutions
Technology transfer and capacity building for the
long term to ensure the performance of any facility
is maintained
Prevent and minimize
waste by maximizing
reuse, recycling and
environmentally
friendly alternative
materials
? Many initiatives and some regional and
national programmes exist, including
Reduce, Reuse, Recycle; EU Producer
Responsibility Directives; Basel Mobile
Phone Partnership; and Basel Partnership
Action on Computer Equipment
Potential to raise many of these
efforts to a global level
Global measurement methodology and data
on waste minimization; reliable data and trend
information
Strict control of
the generation and
managementofhazardous
and other waste
? Data from national reporting to the Basel
Convention Secretariat is sparse and
difficult to interpret; reporting by Parties is
declining
Trend may continue if Parties
are not supported in improving
compliance and changing
direction
Additional effort on awareness raising and capacity
building
2. Protect human health and the environment from POPs
Eliminate or restrict the
production, use, import
and export of POPs
B/B/B B: Some progress, but it is still too early
to evaluate headway on the basis of the
indicators; B: long-term records show a
decrease in atmospheric POP concentrations
during the 1980s and 1990s, but trends have
levelled off since 2000; B: in urban regions
of Western industrialized countries PCB
emissions are ongoing and of the order of
0.1–1.0 gram per person per year
Continuing exposure to POPs in
all parts of the world is likely;
climate change may increase
exposure due to greater
mobilization of POPs
Support to developing countries for their national
implementation plans under the Stockholm
Convention;
greater attention to DDT exposure from malaria
control, and exposure to polybrominated diphenyl
ethers (among other chemicals) from handling
e-waste
3. Reduction of the risks posed by heavy metals
Restrict production and
use of heavy metals
B Progress in developed countries hasresulted
in a less frequentoccurrence ofacute toxicity,
butexposure stilloccursatindustrialand
legacysites, and there is increasing concern
regarding possible subtle developmental
effects ofchronic, low-levelexposure;
significantproblemsremain in developing
countries, where heavymetals are often mined,
processed, used and recycled with limited
control, and where mostcasesofacute toxicity
occur, particularlyfor lead, mercuryand arsenic
Ongoing global negotiations
on mercury are positive, and
further efforts are required
to include heavy metals
(lead, cadmium, arsenic) in
international agreements
Additional research into alternative, more benign
chemicals for use in consumer goods to help
reduce the heavy metal burden to the environment;
more stringent occupational, human health and
environmental standards
Table 6.4 Progress towards goals (see Table 6.1)
A: Significant progress
B: Some progress
C: Very little to no progress
D: Deteriorating
X: Too soon to assess progress
?: Insufficient data
Part 1: State and Trends188
3. Reduction of the risks posed by heavy metals continued
Restrict import and
export of heavy
metals, and waste
containing heavy
metals
B The rapid turnover of e-products and high
cost of eliminating the hazardous substances
within them have led to growth in the trade
and movement of e-waste to developing
countries where labour costs and health and
environmental standards are lower
EU directive on the restriction of
certain hazardous substances in
e-waste is a positive step; global
initiatives are also required
Global initiatives such as that on mercury would be
beneficial
Improve waste
disposal techniques
for waste containing
heavy metals
? Much controlled disposal takes place
in developed countries, but work is still
needed in many developing countries
to improve disposal following mining,
smelting, battery and e-waste recycling
Internationally agreed goals
for lead, mercury and possibly
other heavy metals exist or are in
development; further efforts are
required
More stringent occupational, human health and
environmental standards, as well as more stringent
regulations surrounding disposal
4. Promote shared responsibility and cooperative efforts between Parties in the international trade of certain hazardous chemicals
Develop national
decision-making
processes for the
import and export of
hazardous chemicals
C Many developing countries lack policies on
sound management, with weak institutional
and regulatory frameworks and poor
enforcement of existing laws; there is no
coherent approach for national decisionmaking,
with a multiplicity of government
agencies having mandates for the import
and export of hazardous chemicals, causing
jurisdictional conflict and weakening
decision-making
Foreseeable improvement if the
rate of notifications under the
Rotterdam Convention continues
or is enhanced
Improvement of mechanisms, governance and a
regulatory framework for effective decision making
at regional and national levels, including promoting
synergy in the implementation of international
chemical and waste agreements
Facilitate information
exchange
about chemical
characteristics
? There is a lack of datasets and effective
mechanisms available to national, regional
and international stakeholders for the
retrieval and dissemination of information
about chemicals’ characteristics; poor
information exchange between government
agencies at the national level is hindering
informed decision making
Development and implementation of functional
international, regional and national networks for the
exchange of information on the characteristics of
hazardous chemicals and wastes
5. Use transparent science-based risk assessment and risk management procedures
Sound management
of chemicals
throughout their life
cycle
? Risk assessment is being used at the
international level (Stockholm Convention),
but is constrained in developing countries
by the lack of data on exposure and effects
caused by chemicals and wastes, and also
by capacity constraints
Under the Montreal Protocol, training has
been provided for ozone officers to detect
illegal shipments; the Globally Harmonized
System (GHS) for labelling of chemicals in
the workplace is hazard-based and can be
used as input to risk assessment
There is uncertainty about both the
hazardousness of certain chemicals and the
risk they pose; chemicals in products are
often not identified, sometimes for reasons
of commercial confidentiality
The situation may improve
through the activities of the
convention review committees,
the intergovernmental process on
mercury, EU REACH and national
reassessments of chemicals
Data on children’s vulnerability to chemical
risk (average risk assessment only uses adult
data); training in chemicals identification and
risk management under the auspices of SAICM;
disclosure of product composition
Encourage research
in order to prevent,
eliminate and reduce
pollution of the
marine environment
A Historically, investment in marine pollution
research has been more active in the
northern hemisphere; more recently,
important efforts are being made in
the developing world to protect marine
resources – often an important food source
– from pollution
Scientifically sound data on contamination
6. Develop adequate monitoring systems (national, regional and global)
Develop sound
science-based
monitoring
programmes
? For POPs, the Global Monitoring Plan is
in place; for a wide range of additional
chemicals, biomonitoring programmes are
inadequate in most countries and human
exposure is incompletely documented;
hazardous waste reporting systems
are available for Parties to the Basel
Convention but are not fully taken up or
reported; the impacts of waste due to
unsound disposal are difficult to quantify
Global monitoring programmes
involving chemicals are being
developed and harmonization
and global coverage are expected
to be reached in the coming years
Comprehensive regional and global monitoring
programmes for building spatial and temporal trends
of key chemicals and wastes, as well as datasets and
indicators to enable monitoring of change; biomarkers
and bioindicators to assist the assessment of chemical
exposure and effects; training and appropriate
laboratory facilities in developing countries, and
support to build capacity for monitoring hazardous
residues imported from developed countries (storage,
disposal or reprocessing)
Table 6.4 Progress towards goals (see Table 6.1) continued
Chemicals and Waste 189
7. Capacity development
Sound
management of
chemicals and
hazardous wastes
C In spite of efforts by international agencies,
capacity development for sound management
in developing countries is still lacking; Basel
and Stockholm Convention Regional Centres
have been established to enhance the
capacity of governments and stakeholders in
developing countries, but adequate financing
mechanisms are not yet in place
Situation likely to improve
if Stockholm and Basel
Conventions, SAICM and the
GHS can be supported through
innovative financing mechanisms
An adequate financing mechanism, as well as
information and knowledge sharing between north
and south
Improve resource
efficiency
B Waste disposal rather than integrated waste
management is practised without resource
and materials recovery, and national waste
policy and legislations on integrated waste
management as well as infrastructure for
collection are inadequate; crude and resourceinefficient
recycling exists in the informal
economy
Environmentally sound
management of waste instead
of indiscriminate disposal and
uncontrolled open burning
Promotion of regional and national initiatives on
waste-to-energy and waste-to-organic-fertilizers,
along with waste recycling and materials recovery
through pilot/demonstration projects
Control of
transboundary
movements of
hazardous waste
? The control system available via the Basel
Convention’s prior informed consent
notification process can work very well when
fully utilized, though the process is vulnerable
to circumvention and illegal traffic
Full national implementation
of the Basel Convention and
measures under SAICM, along
with further stimulus, would
improve the rate of progress
Improved capacity building and funding mechanisms
to sustain implementation and compliance of
the Basel Convention; elaboration of synergistic
convention initiatives at the regional and national
levels; improved cooperation between international,
regional and national networks for controlling the
transboundary movement of hazardous waste
Greatercooperation,forexamplethroughtheEuropean
IMPELandglobalINECEnetworks,toimprovecompliance
andenforcement,togetherwithInterpolPollution
CrimesWorkingGroupinitiatives;betterreporting as
wellasactivecollaborationandcooperationwithBasel
Conventionfocalpointsindevelopingcountries
8. Protect and preserve the marine environment from all sources of pollution
Pollution from
ships
B Progress has been made under the MARPOL
Convention – 150 countries have ratified
although many are yet to comply; control of
greenhouse gas emissions from international
shipping, and a draft of the reduction
mechanisms themselves are under further
consideration by the International Maritime
Organization’s Marine Environment Protection
Committee (MEPC)
Likely to improve with the
development of new mechanisms
under MEPC
Development and implementation of functional
international networks for the control of ships’
wastes, including disposal facilities in ports
Protect the marine
environment
X Protection of the marine environment has not
always been given priority by institutional
arrangements or by environmental regulations
in developing countries; UNEP’s regional seas
conventions have not all been transposed into
law or implemented; many countries have not
ratified or implemented MARPOL; the level
of coastal and marine pollution continues to
increase, with a lack of control of land-based
sources of pollution at the regional and
national levels; unsustainable exploitation of
marine resources and the marine environment
is widespread
Mixed International action to promote the ratification,
transposition into national law and implementation
of MARPOL, the regional seas conventions and the
London Convention at the regional and national
levels, as well as to develop multilateral agreements
on chemicals and waste
9. Radioactive waste management and safety
Ensure that
radioactive
wastes are
safely managed,
transported, stored
and disposed of
B Radioactive waste from the operation of nuclear
facilities and uses of radioactive material in
medicine, industry and research are generally
controlled according to international standards
and reported at meetings of the Joint Convention
onSpent Fuel and Radioactive Waste; some
legacy sites remain from nuclear weapons
production and testing; some uranium mining
legacy sites remain in Africa and Central Asia
Radioactive waste will continue
to be generated by the nuclear
industry, medical and industrial
uses and mining and mineral
exploitation, with elevated
levels of naturally occurring
radionuclides; management and
disposal facilities will be needed
in the foreseeable future
A closer link between the Joint Convention (already
an important global instrument for safe management
of radioactive waste) and other international
instruments on hazardous materials to develop
beneficial synergies; support for international efforts
to assist with remediation of uranium mining legacy
sites
Prevent accidents
with radiological
consequences
and mitigate
consequences of
accidental releases
B The Fukushima accident illustrates that nuclear
accidents can still occur despite improvements
since Chernobyl, and the Convention on
Nuclear Safety (sister convention to the Joint
Convention) is intended to ensure countries
maintain a high level of safety
A number of countries have
decided to phase out their
nuclear programmes following
the Fukushima accident while
others continue to develop their
programmes; it is too early to say
what the overall impact will be
More emphasis to ensure that the objectives of
the Convention on Nuclear Safety and the Joint
Convention are achieved
Table 6.4 Progress towards goals (see Table 6.1) continued
Part 1: State and Trends190
Astudillo, J.C., Bravo, M., Dumont, C.P. and Thiel, M. (2009). Detached aquaculture buoys in the
SE Pacific: potential dispersal vehicles for associated organisms. Aquatic Biology 5, 219–231
ATSDR (2007). Toxicological Profile for Lead. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry.
US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Atlanta, GA
Barra, R., Castillo, C. and Torres, J.P.M. (2007). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the South
American environment. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 191, 1–22
Basel Convention (2012). The Synergies Process. http://www.basel.int/TheConvention/
Synergies/tabid/1320/Default.aspx
Basel Convention (2011). Basel Convention website. http://www.basel.int/Countries/
NationalReporting/StatusCompilations/tabid/1497/Default.aspx
Basel Convention (1989). The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movement of
Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal. http://www.basel.int/
Blacksmith Institute (2011). Top Ten of the Toxic Twenty. The World’s Worst Toxic Pollution
Problems Report 2011. Blacksmith Institute, New York and Green Cross Switzerland, Zurich.
http://www.worstpolluted.org
Bogdal, C., Nikolic, D., Lüthi, M.P., Schenker, U., Scheringer, M. and Hungerbühler, K.
(2010). Release of legacy pollutants from melting glaciers: model evidence and conceptual
understanding, Environmental Science and Technology 44(11): 4063-4069
Bose-O’Reilly, S.B., Lettmeier, R.M., Gothe, R.M., Beinhoff, C., Siebert, U. and Drasch, G. (2008).
Mercury as a serious hazard for children in gold mining areas. Environmental Research 107(1),
89–97
Boxall, A., Hardy,A., Beulke,S., Boucard, T., Burgin, L., Falloon, P., Haygarth,P., Hutchinson, P.,
Kovats, S., Leonardi, G., Levy, L., Nichols, G., Parsons, S., Potts, L., Stone, D., Topp,E., Turley,D.,
Walsh,K., Wellington,E. and Williams, R. (2009). Impacts of climate change on indirect human
exposure to pathogens and chemicals from agriculture. Environmental Health Perspectives
117(4), 508–514
Brodesser, J., Byron, D.H., Cannavan, A., Ferris, I.G., Gross-Helmert, K., Hendrichs, J.,
Maestroni, B.M., Unsworth, J., Vaagt, G. and Zapata, F. (2006). Pesticides in developing
countries and the International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and the Use of Pesticides.
Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety (AGES) Meeting on Risks and Benefits of
Pesticides, Vienna, Austria, 30 March 2006. http://www-naweb.iaea.org/nafa/fep/
public/2006-AGES-CoC.pdf
Carn, S.A., Krueger, A.J., Krotkov, N.A., Yang, K. and Levelt, P.F. (2007). Sulfur dioxide emissions
from Peruvian copper smelters detected by the ozone-monitoring instrument. Geophysical
Research Letters 34(09801) L09801, doi:10.1029/2006GL029020
Caroli, S., Cescon, P. and Walton, D.W.H. (eds.) (2001). Environmental Contamination in
Antarctica: A Challenge to Analytical Chemistry. Elsevier Science, Oxford
CAS (2011). Chemicals Abstract Service. www.cas.org (accessed July 2011)
CEMC (2012) Canadian Centre for Environmental Modelling and Chemistry website. www.trentu.
ca/academic/aminss/envmodel
Colborn,T., vom Saal, F.S. and Soto, A.M. (1993). Developmental effects of endocrine-disrupting
chemicals in wildlife and humans. Environmental Health Perspectives 101(5), 378–384
CSD (2010). Review of implementation of Agenda 21 and the Johannesburg Plan of
Implementation: Chemicals. Report of the Secretary-General. Commission on Sustainable
Development, 18th session. http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N10/245/37/
PDF/N1024537.pdf?OpenElement
Cui, J. and Forssberg, E. (2003). Mechanical recycling of waste electric and electronic
equipment: a review. Journal of Hazardous Materials 99(3), 243–263
Diamanti-Kandarakis, E., Bourguignon, J.P., Giudice, L.C., Hauser, R., Prins, G.S., Soto, A.M.,
Zoeller, T. and Gore, A.C. (2009). Endocrine-disrupting chemicals: an Endocrine Society
scientific statement. Endocrine Reviews 30(4), 293–342
European Nuclear Society (2012). http://www.euronuclear.org/info/ (accessed February 2012)
FAO (2012) Prevention and Disposal of Obsolete Pesticides. Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations, Rome. http://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/obsolete-pesticides/wherestocks/zh/
(accessed March 2012)
FAO (2002) Stockpiles of Obsolete Pesticides in Africa Higher than Expected. Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. http://www.fao.org/english/newsroom/
news/2002/9109-en.html
Feingold, B.J., Vegosen, L., Davis, M., Leibler, J., Peterson, A. and Silbergeld, E.K. (2010). A
niche for infectious disease in environmental health: rethinking the toxicological paradigm.
Environmental Health Perspectives 118(8), 1165–1172
Finnveden, G., Hauschild, M.Z., Ekvall, T., Guine´e, J., Heijungs, R., Hellweg, S., Koehler, A.,
Pennington, D. and Suh, S. (2009). Recent developments in Life Cycle Assessment. Journal of
Environmental Management 91, 1–21
Flegal, A.R. and Smith, D.R. (1992). Lead levels in preindustrial humans. New England Journal of
Medicine 326, 1293–1294
Fraser, B. (2009). La Oroya’s legacy of lead. Environmental Science and Technology 43(15),
5555–5557
Geisz, H.N., Dickhut, R.M., Cochran, M.A., Fraser, W.R. and Ducklow, H.W. (2008). Melting
glaciers: a probable source of DDT to the Antarctic Marine Ecosystem. Environmental Science
and Technology 42, 3958–3962
Gonzalez, M., Miglioranza, K.S.B., Aizpún, J.E., Isla, F.I. and Peña, A. (2010). Assessing pesticide
leaching and desorption in soils with different agricultural activities from Argentina (Pampa and
Patagonia). Chemosphere 81(3), 351–356
Gore, A.C. and Patisaul, H.B. (2010). Neuroendocrine disruption: historical roots, current
progress, questions for the future. Front. Neuroendocrinology 31, 395–399
Haefliger, P., Mathieu-Nolf, M., Lociciro,S., Ndiaye,C., Coly,M., Diouf, A., Faye, A.L., Sow,A.,
Tempowski,J., Pronczuk,J., Filipe Junior,A.P., Bertollini,R. and Neira, M. (2009). Mass lead
intoxication from informal used lead-acid battery recycling in Dakar, Senegal. Environmental
Health Perspectives 117(10), 1535–1540
Hammer, S. Kamal-Chaoui, L., Robert, A. and Plouin, M. (2011). Cities and Green Growth:
A Conceptual Framework. OECD Regional Development Working Papers 2011/08, OECD
Publishing. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5kg0tflmzx34-en
Handoh, I.C. and Kawai, T. (2011). Bayesian uncertainty analysis of the global dynamics of
persistent organic pollutants: towards quantifying the planetary boundaries for chemical
pollution. In Interdisciplinary Studies on Environmental Chemistry – Marine Environmental
Modeling and Analysis (eds. Omori, K., Guo, X., Yoshie, N., Fujii, N., Handoh, I.C., Isobe, A.
and Tanabe, S.). pp.179–187. Terrapub, Tokyo
Hartung, T. and Rovida, C. (2009). Chemicals regulators have overreached. Nature 460,
1080–1081
Hengstler, J.G., Foth, H., Gebel, T., Kramer, P.J., Lilienblum, W., Schweinfurth, H., Völkel, W.,
Wollin, K.M. and Gundert-Remy, U. (2011). Critical evaluation of key evidence on the human
health hazards of exposure to bisphenol A. Critical Reviews in Toxicology 41, 263–291
Huang, X., Sillampaa ,T., Gjessing, E.T., Peraniemi, S. and Vogt, R.D. (2011). Water quality in
the southern Tibetan Plateau: chemical evaluation of the River Yarlung Tsangpo (Brahmaputra).
River Research and Applications 27, 113–121
Hung, H., Kallenborn, R., Breivik, K., Su, Y., Brorström-Lundén, E., Olafsdottier, K., Thorlacius,
J.M., Leppänen, S., Bossi, R., Skov, H., Manö, S., Patton, G.W., Stern, G., Sverko, E. and
Fellin, P. (2010). Atmospheric monitoring of organic pollutants in the Arctic under the
Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP): 1993–2006. Science of the Total
Environment 408, 2854–2873
Huo, X., Peng, L., Xu, X.J., Zheng, L., Qiu, B., Qi, Z., Zhang, B., Han, D. and Piao, Z. (2007).
Elevated blood lead levels of children in Guiyu, an electronic waste recycling town in China.
Environmental Health Perspectives 115(7), 1113–1117
IAEA (2010). Measures to Strengthen International Cooperation in Nuclear, Radiation, Transport
and Waste Safety. General Conference Resolution GC (54)/RES/7 adopted 24 September 2010.
International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna
IAEA (2009a). Classification of Radioactive Waste General Safety Guide. Series No. GSG-1.
International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna
IAEA (2009b). Summary Report. Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management
and on the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management. Third Review Meeting of the
Contracting Parties, 11–20 May, Vienna. JC/RM3/02/Rev2. International Atomic Energy
Agency, Vienna
IAEA (2008a). 20/20 Vision for the Future. Background Report by the Director General for the
Commission of Eminent Persons. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna
IAEA (2008b). Estimation of Global Inventories of Radioactive Waste and Other Radioactive
Material. TECDOC-1591. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna
IAEA (2006). An International Peer Review of the Programme for Evaluating Sites for Near Surface
Disposal of Radioactive Waste in Lithuania. Report of the IAEA International Review Team.
International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna
IAEA (1997). Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety of
Radioactive Waste Management. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna. http://www.iaea.
org/Publications/Documents/Infcircs/1997/infcirc546.pdf
IHPA (2009) Obsolete (Lethal) Pesticides: A Ticking Time Bomb and Why We Have to Act Now.
International HCH and Pesticides Association. http://www.ihpa.info/docs/library/reports/
timeBomb_Obsolete_Pesticides.pdf
IPCP (undated). International Panel on Chemical Pollution, Zurich. http://www.ipcp.ch/
Jarup, L. and Akesson, A. (2009). Current status of cadmium as an environmental health
problem Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 238, 201–208.
Jacobsen, J.K., Massey, L. and Gulland, F. (2010). Fatal ingestion of floating net debris by two
sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus). Marine Pollution Bulletin 60(15), 765–767
Koppe, J.G. and Keys, J. (2001). PCBs and the precautionary principle. In: Late Lessons from Early
Warnings: The Precautionary Principle 1896–2000 (eds. Harremoes, P., Gee, D., MacGarvin, M.,
Stirling, A., Keys, J., Wynne, B. and Vaz, S.G.). pp.64–72. Environmental Issue Report No. 22.
European Environment Agency, Copenhagen
REFERENCES	
Chemicals and Waste 191
Lamon, L., Valle, M.D., Critto, A. and Marcomini, A. (2009). Introducing an integrated climate
change perspective in POPs modelling, monitoring and regulation. Environmental Pollution
157(7), 1971–1980
Lanphear, B., Matte, T., Rogers, J., Clickner, R., Dietz, B., Bornschein, R., Succop, P., Mahaffey, K.,
Dixon, S., Galke, W., Rabinowitz, M., Farfel, M., Rohde, C., Schwartz, J. Ashley, P. and Jacobs, D.
(1998). The contribution of lead-contaminated house dust and residential soil to children’s blood
lead levels: a pooled analysis of 12 epidemiologic studies. Environmental Research 79(1), 51–68
Lemieux, P.L., Lutes, C.C. and Santoianni, D.A. (2004). Emissions of organic air toxics from open
burning: a comprehensive review. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 30, 1–32
Lokuge, K.M., Smith, W., Caldwell, B., Dear, K. and Milton, A.H. (2004). The effect of arsenic
mitigation interventions on disease burden in Bangladesh. Environmental Health Perspectives
112, 1172–1177
London Convention (1972/96). Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping
of Wastes and Other Matter. Adoption 1972; 1996 Protocol. http://www.imo.org/About/
Conventions/ListOfConventions/Pages/Convention-on-the-Prevention-of-Marine-Pollution-by-
Dumping-of-Wastes-and-Other-Matter.aspx
MacLeod, M., Riley,W.J. and McKone, T.E. (2005). Assessing the influence of climate variability
on atmospheric concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls using a global-scale mass balanced
model (BETR-Global). Environmental Science and Technology 39, 6749–6756
MARPOL (1973/78). International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships.
Adoption 1973, 1978 Protocol. International Maritime Organization (IMO), London. http://
www.imo.org/about/conventions/listofconventions/pages/international-convention-for-the-
prevention-of-pollution-from-ships-(marpol).aspx
Mikelis, N. (2010). IMO’s Action Plan on Tackling the Inadequacy of Port Reception Facilities.
Ships’ Waste: Time for action! Conference organised by EUROSHORE and FEBEM-FEGE, Brussels,
14 October 2010. International Maritime Organization, London
Morris, J., Willis, J., De Martinis, D., Hansen, B., Laursen, H., Sintes, J.R., Kearns, P. and
Gonzalez, M. (2010). Science policy considerations for responsible nanotechnology decisions.
Nature Nanotechnology 6, 73–77. doi:10.1038/nnano.2010.191
Muir, D. and Howard, P. (2010). Identifying new persistent and bioaccumulative organics among
chemicals in commerce. Environmental Science and Technology 44, 2277–2285
Muir, D. and Howard, P. (2006). Are there other persistent organic pollutants? A challenge for
environmental chemists. Environmental Science and Technology 40, 7157–7166
Nweke, O.C. and Sanders, W.H. (2009). Modern environmental health hazards: a public health
issue of increasing significance in Africa. Environmental Health Perspectives 117(6), 863–870
OECD (2010a). Cutting Costs in Chemicals Management: How OECD helps Governments and
Industry. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris
OECD (2010b). OECD Factbook: Economic, Environmental and Social Statistics. Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris
OECD (2008a). OECD Environmental Data: Compendium 2008. Organisation for Economic Cooperation
and Development, Paris. http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/56/45/41255417.pdf
OECD (2008b). OECD Environmental Outlook to 2030. Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development, Paris
OECD (2008c) Costs of Inaction on Key Environmental Challenges. Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development, Paris
Ondarza P.M., Gonzalez, M., Fillmann, G. and Miglioranza, K.S.B. (2011). Polybrominated
diphenyl ethers and organochlorine compound levels in brown trout (Salmo trutta) from
Argentinean Patagonia. Chemosphere 83, 1597–1602
Ondarza, P.M., Miglioranza, K.S.B., Gonzalez, M., Shimabukuro, V.M., Aizpún, J.E. and Moreno,
V.J. (2010). Organochlorine compounds (OCCs) in common carp (Cyprinus carpio) from
Patagonia Argentina. Journal of the Brazilian Society of Ecotoxicology 5, 41–46
Poliakoff, M., Fitzpatrick, J.M., Farren, T.R. and Anastas, P.T. (2002). Green chemistry: the science
and policy of change. Science 297, 807–810
Prüss-Ustün, A., Vickers, C., Haefliger, P. and Bertollini, R. (2011). Knowns and unknowns on
burden of disease due to chemicals: a systematic review. Environmental Health 10, 9–24
Rajapakse, N., Silva, E. and Kortenkamp, A. (2002). Combining xenoestrogens at levels below
individual no-observed-effect concentrations dramatically enhances steroid hormone action.
Environmental Health Perspectives 110, 917–921
Rauch, J.N. and Pacyna, J.M. (2009). Earth’s global Ag, Al, Cr, Cu, Fe, Ni, Pb, and Zn cycles.
Global Biogeochemical Cycles 23, GB2001
Ravenscroft, O., Brammer, H. and Richards, K. (2009). Arsenic Pollution: A Global Synthesis.
Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester
Ritter, R., Scheringer, M., MacLeod, M. and Hungerbühler, K. (2011). Assessment of
nonoccupational exposure to DDT in the tropics and the north: relevance of uptake via
inhalation from indoor residual spraying. Environmental Health Perspectives 119, 707–712
Rockström, J., Steffen, W., Noone, K., Persson, Å., Chapin III, S.F., Lambin, E.F., Lenton, T.M.,
Scheffer, M., Folke, C., Schellnhuber, H.J., Nykvist, B., de Wit, C.A., Hughes, T., van der Leeuw,
S., Rodhe, H., Sörlin, S., Snyder, P.K, Costanza, R., Svedin, U., Falkenmark, M., Karlberg, L.,
Corell, R.W., Fabry, V.J., Hansen, J., Walker, B., Liverman, D., Richardson, K., Crutzen, P. and
Foley, J.A (2009). A safe operating space for humanity. Nature 461, 472–475
Rotterdam Convention (2001). Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for
Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade. Revised in 2011. http://www.
pic.int/TheConvention/Overview/TextoftheConvention/tabid/1048/language/en-US/Default.aspx
SAICM (2009). Background information in relation to the emerging policy issue of electronic
waste. Implementation of the Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management:
Emerging Policy Issues. International Conference on Chemicals Management, Geneva, 11–15
May. SAICM/ICCM.2/INF/36. Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management
Schluepa, M., Hagelueken., C., Kuehr, R., Magalini, F., Maurer, C., Meskers, C., Mueller, E. and
Wang. F. (2009). Recycling from E-waste to Resources: Sustainable Innovation and Technology
Transfer. UNEP/DTIE
Schwarzer, S., De Bono, A., Giuliani, G., Kluser, S. and Peduzzi, P. (2005). E-Waste, the Hidden
Side of IT Equipment’s Manufacturing and Use. UNEP Early Warning on Emerging Environmental
Threats No. 5. United Nations Environment Programme/GRID Europe. http://www.grid.unep.ch/
products/3_Reports/ew_ewaste.en.pdf
Selin, N.E. and Selin, H. (2006). Global politics of mercury pollution: the need for multi-scale
governance. Review of European Community and International Environmental Law 15(3), 258–269
Sexton, K., Ryan, A.D., Adgate, J.L., Barr, D.B. and Needham, L.L. (2011). Biomarker
measurements of concurrent exposure to multiple environmental chemicals and chemical
classes in children. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A 74(14), 927–942
Sheffield, P.E. and Landrigan, P.J. (2011). Global climate change and children’s health: threats
and strategies for prevention. Environmental Health Perspectives 119(3), 291–298
Silva, E., Rajapakse, N. and Kortenkamp, N. (2002). Something from “nothing” – eight weak
estrogenic chemicals combined at concentrations below NOEC produce significant mixture
effect. Environmental Science and Technology 36(8), 1751–1756
Smith, A.H. and Lingus, E.O. (2000). Contamination of drinking-water by arsenic in Bangladesh:
a public health emergency. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 78(9), 1093–1103
Soerensen, A.L., Sunderland, E.M., Holmes, C.D., Jacob, D.J.,Yantosca, R.M., Skov, H.,
Christensen, J.H., Strode, S.A. and Mason, R.P. (2010). An improved global model for air-sea
exchange of mercury: high concentrations over the North Atlantic. Environmental Science and
Technology 44(22), 8574–8580
Stockholm Convention (2001). Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. Adopted
2001. Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention, Châtelaine. http://chm.pops.int/default.aspx
Thundiyil, J.G., Stober, J., Besbelli, N. and Pronczuk, J. (2008). Acute pesticide poisoning: a
proposed classification tool. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 86(3), 205–209
Toppari, J., Larsen, J.C., Christiansen, P., Giwercman, A., Grandjean, P., Guillette, L.J., Jegou, B.,
Jensen, T.K., Jouannet, P., Keiding, N., Leffers, H., McLachlan, J.A., Meyer, O., Muller, J., Rajpert-De
Meyts, E., Scheike, T., Sharpe, R., Sumpter, J. and Skakkebaek, N.E. (1996). Male reproductive
health and environmental xenoestrogens. Environmental Health Perspectives 104(4), 741–803
UNCED (1992a). Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. United Nations Convention
on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro
UNCED (1992b). Agenda 21. United Nations Convention on Environment and Development.
http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/agenda21/english/Agenda21.pdf
UNCSD (2011). Report of the Secretary-General: Policy Options and Actions for Expediting
Progress in Implementation: Waste Management. Commission on Sustainable Development
19th Session, 2–13 May. Doc. E/CN.17/2011/6. United Nations Economic and Social Council.
http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/csd/csd_pdfs/csd-19/sg-reports/CSD-19-SG-report-waste-
management-final-single-spaced.pdf
UNECE Geneva Convention (1979/98). Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution,
1998 Aarhus Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs). http://www.unece.org/
fileadmin/DAM/env/lrtap/full%20text/1998.POPs.e.pdf
UNEP (2012). 12th Special Session GC/GMEF Website: UNEP/GCSS.XII/8 and UNEP/GCSS.
XII/7. United Nations Environment Progamme, Nairobi. http://www.unep.org/gc/gcss-xii/docs/
info_docs.asp
UNEP (2011a). Selected Documents Relevant to the Work of the Implementation and Compliance
Committee, Conference of the Parties to the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary
Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal. Tenth meeting, Cartagena, Colombia,
17–21 October 2011. UNEP/CHW.10/INF/11. Implementation and Compliance Committee,
United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi
UNEP (2011b). UNEP Yearbook 2011: Emerging Issues in Our Global Environment. United
Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi
UNEP (2010). Report of the First Meeting of the Global Alliance to Eliminate Lead in Paints.
United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi. http://www.unep.org/hazardoussubstances/
Portals/9/Lead_Cadmium/docs/GAELP/FirstMeeting/GAELP_8_Meeting_report.pdf
UNEP (2009). Recycling from E-Waste to Resources. Sustainable Innovation and Technology
Transfer Industrial Sector Studies DTI /1192/PA. United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi
UNEP (2007). Global Environment Outlook 4: Environment for Development. United Nations
Environment Programme and Earthscan, Nairobi
Part 1: State and Trends192
UNEP (2002). Proceedings: Subregional Workshop on Support for the Implementation of the
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs). Port of Spain, Trinidad and
Tobago, 4–8 June. United Nations Environment Programme – Chemicals, Geneva. http://www.
pops.int/documents/implementation/gef/TT_Proceedings.pdf
UNEP (2000). Related Work on Persistent Organic Pollutants under the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Review of Ongoing International Activities Relating to
the Work of the Committee. Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee for an International Legally
Binding Instrument for Implementing International Action on Certain Persistent
Organic Pollutants, 5th Session, Johannesburg, 4–9 December. United Nations Environment
Programme, Nairobi. http://www.pops.int/documents/meetings/inc5/Fr/inf5-4/inf4.doc
UNEP (1987). Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. Ozone Secretariat,
United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi. http://ozone.unep.org/pdfs/Montreal-
Protocol2000.pdf
UNEP/AMAP (2010). Climate Change and POPs. Predicting the Impacts. Report of a UNEP/AMAP
expert group. Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention, Geneva
UN-Habitat (2010). Solid Waste Management in the World’s Cities: Water and Sanitation in the World’s
Cities 2010. United Nations HumanSettlements Programme and Earthscan, London and Washington, DC
Vogel, D. (1997). Trading up and governing across: transnational governance and environmental
protection. Journal of European Public Policy 4, 556–571
von Braun, M.C., von Lindern, I.H., Khristoforova, N.K., Kachur A.H., Yelpatyevsky, P.V., Elpatyevskaya,
V.P. and Spalinger, S.M. (2002). Environmental lead contamination in the Rudnaya Pristan–
Dalnegorsk Mining and Smelter District, Russian Far East. Environmental Research 88(3), 164–173
Wania, F. and Daly, G.L. (2002). Estimating the contribution of degradation in air and deposition
to the deep sea to the global loss of PCBs. Atmospheric Environment 36–37, 5581–5593
Wasserman, G.A., Xinhua, L., Parvez, F., Ahsan, H., Factor-Litvak, P., van Geen, A., Slavkovich,
V., Lolacono, N.J., Cheng, Z., Hussain, I., Momotaj, H. and Graziano, J.H. (2004). Water arsenic
exposure and children’s intellectual function in Araihazar, Bangladesh. Environmental Health
Perspectives 112, 1329–1333
Waye, A. and Trudeau, V.J. (2011). Neuroendocrine disruption: more than hormones are upset.
Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part B: Critical Reviews 14(5-7)
WHO (2002). Global Assessment of the State-of-the-Science of Endocrine Disruptors (eds.
Damstra, T., Barlow, S., Kavlock, R., Bergman, A. and Van Der Kraak, G.). International
Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization, Geneva. http://www.who.int/ipcs/
publications/new_issues/endocrine_disruptors/en/
WHO/UNICEF (2005). Water for Life; Making It Happen. WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring
Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/
waterfor life.pdf; http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/waterforlife.pdf
WSSD (2002). Johannesburg Plan of Implementation. World Summit on Sustainable
Development. http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/WSSD_POI_PD/English/
POIToc.htm
Young, L.C., Vanderlip, C., Duffy, D.C., Afanasyev, V. and Shaffer, S.A. (2009). Bringing home
the trash: do colony-based differences in foraging distribution lead to increased plastic
ingestion in Laysan albatrosses? PloS ONE 4, 10
Zarfl, C. and Matthies, M. (2010). Are marine plastic particles transport vectors for organic
pollutants to the Arctic? Marine Pollution Bulletin 60(10), 1810–1840
Zoeteman, B.C.J., Krikke, H.R. and Venselaar, J. (2010). Handling WEEE waste flows: on
the effectiveness of producer responsibility in a globalizing world. International Journal of
Advanced Manufacturing Technology 47, 415–436