Biodiversita / Biodiversity •A. Some 1 413 000 species have been described by scientists; most of these are either insects or plants (Wilson, 1992). B. Estimated species number in taxa with over 100 000 species expected (vertebrates given for comparison); number of described species indicated by grey part of bars …. Number of undescribed species may reach 10 million, or even 30-150 million (Hammond, 1992) - see next page (slide) •- viz další stránka •insects •other animals •viruses •bacteria •fungi •algae •protists Biodiversita / Biodiversity •undescribed •species •described •species •number of species in millions •viruses • •bacteria • •nematodes • •crustaceans • •prostists • •algae • •vertebrates • •molluscs • •fungi • •arachnids • •plants • •insects •/ million •Precision of estimate •very bad • • •bad • •medium • • •very bad • •very bad • • •good • •medium • • • medium • •good • • •medium • J. Schlaghamerský: Nature Conservation – What is Biodiversity? •Terry L. Erwin: • •estimated 30 million extant species – based on the following considerations: • • 1200 species of beetles found on the tree Luehea seemanii in Panama • Of those 163 species were found exclusively on this tree species • There are some 50 000 tree species in the tropics • Beetles make up for 40 % of all arthropods • There are approximately two times as many arthropod species in the canopy than on the ground of tropical forests • extrapolation • • • 204 •canopy fogging •A more sober estimate: 6-9 millions (insects alone!) • The term „biological diversity“ first used (in a book for a wider audience) by Raymond F. Dasmann, biologist and conservationist “A different kind of country” (1968) • • First use of the term „biological diversity“ in a technical publication: Thomas Lovejoy, tropical ecologist and conservationist, in his prologue to the book by M. E. Soulé and B. A. Wilcox “Conservation Biology: An Evolutionary-Ecological Perspective” (1980) • • First use of the term „biodiversity“ possibly by W. G. Rosenem in 1985 in printed • materials prepared for the conference National Forum on Biological Diversity organized in 1986 in the USA by the National Research Council. • • First use of the term „biodiversity“ in a publication: In 1988 by the sociobiologist Edward O. Wilson in the proceedings volume (titled “Biodiversity”) from the above-mentioned conference. • • Further spread of the term for instance thanks to the book by E. O. Wilson (1992) “The diversity of Life”. • • Got embraced by the public, politicians etc. by the Convention on Biological Diversity of the United Nations Earth Summit in 1992 (Rio de Janeiro). •The term biodiversity (biological diversity) File:Lovejoy-crop.jpg •Thomas Lovejoy •Similar terms: Natural Diversity (used since the 1970ties, nowadays practically outcompeted by the term Bio(logical) Diversity; Natural Heritage – wider term, includes inanimate nature. •Edward O. Wilson •Raymond F. Dasmann •Foto: Jennifer McNulty •J. Schlaghamerský: Nature Conservation – What is Biodiversity? Biodiversita / Biodiversity •Viz další snímek •See next slide •Které společenstvo je rozmanitější? Druhová diversita! •Which community is more diverse? Species diversity! Biodiversita / Biodiversity •Shannonův (Shannon-Wienerův) index diversity (a příslušná vyrovnanost = H’/H’max) •The Shannon (-Wiener) Index of Diversity (and the associated Evenness = H’/H’max) •Které společenstvo je rozmanitější? Druhová diversita! •Which community is more diverse? Species diversity! •Example of an index of species diversity (there are many more!): • •Shannon (-Wiener) index (often, but erroneously Shannon-Weaver) • •The most used index of diversity in ecology, originally from information theory. • •Prerequisite (often neglected!): data have to be collected by random sampling •(in the statistical sense of the term). •H´= - Σ pi ln pi •S •i = 1 •pi = ni / N •Σ pi = 1 •S •i = 1 •H´= species diversity •S = total number of species (= species richness) •pi = probability of the occurrence of species i, i.e. percentage representation of a i-th species • based on all individuals of all species in the community, values from 0.0 do 1.0 •N = total number of individuals •ni = number of individuals of the species i •Evenness (equitability): E´= H´/ H´max •H´max = - Σ 1/S ln 1/S = ln S •Species diversity includes both species richness and evenness of the community! •J. Schlaghamerský: Nature Conservation – What is Biodiversity? Biodiversita / Biodiversity •genetická a fenetická •diversita (úroveň jedince •a populace) •genetic and phenetic •diversity (level of the individual and population) •úroveň společenstva •community diversity •diversita ekosystémů (diversita krajiny – zahrnující vícero biotopů) •ecosystem diversity •(-landscape diversity – •encompasing various •habitats) •Convention on Biological Diversity (http://www.cbd.int) •The convention was opened for signiture within the UNEP programme at the •UN Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiru in June 1992 (Rio Earth Summit). The Czech Republic signed the convention in 1993, it became binding for it on 3 March 1994. • •The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) entered into force on 29 December 1993. It has 3 main objectives: •1) The conservation of biological diversity •2) The sustainable use of the components of biological diversity •3) The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources • •National governments have the sovereign right to utilise their own resources in compliance with their environmental policy. However, they are responsible for making sure that they will not cause harm to the environment of other countries or territories outside of their own territory. •J. Schlaghamerský: Nature Conservation – What is Biodiversity? •„For the purposes of this Convention: • "Biological diversity" means the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.“ • •Convention on Biological Diversity (http://www.biodiv.org) •J. Schlaghamerský: Nature Conservation – What is Biodiversity? • •compositional •diversity •structural •diversity •functional •diversity • • • • •J. Schlaghamerský: Nature Conservation – What is Biodiversity? •Which of the two assemblages has the higher biodiversity?! S_officinalis lu_po_fl2 •Four species of beetles belonging to the family Carabidae (ground beetles) •Three species of animals – representing very different evolutionary lineages •Phylogenetic or taxic diversity •J. Schlaghamerský: Nature Conservation – What is Biodiversity? Biodiversita / Biodiversity •Funkční biodiversita / Functional Biodiversity •Příklad / Example: ekologické skupiny žížal / ecological groups of earthworms •epigeické •endogeické •anektické •Schéma rozmístění a tvaru chodeb ekologických skupin žížal jak je definoval Bouché. • •Effect of earthworm populations and soil erosion: annual surface erosion / annual run off) •Struktura společenstva žížal na aktivní pastvině a přilehlém vlhkém tropickém lese na aluviálním inceptisolu v Puerto Ricu. Biodiversita / Biodiversity •Početnost jedinců (abundance) u zjištěných druhů členovců •Ekologický význam •Význam pro ochranu druhů •Nízká ochranářská hodnota? •Ekologická redundantnost? Biodiversita / Biodiversity •Keystone species as wolves, bats, fig trees, infectious species make up for a small •proportion of biomass of a natural community but have a big effect on its organisation and survival. •Keystone species (e.g. wolfs, bats, •fig trees, infectious organisms) •Dominant species (e.g. forest trees, high game, •grasses, brown algae) •Rare species (e.g. butterflies, •mosses, wild plants) •Common species with little •effect (e.g. understorey trees, •shrubs, economically unimportant •grasses) •Proportional biomass of species • • • • • • • • • • • • •Keystone = klenák > Biodiversita / Biodiversity •Keystone species as wolves, bats, fig trees, infectious species make up for a small •proportion of biomass of a natural community but have a big effect on its organisation and survival. •Keystone species (e.g. wolfs, bats, •fig trees, infectious organisms) •Dominant species (e.g. forest trees, high game, grasses, brown algae) •Rare species (e.g. butterflies, •mosses, wild plants) •Common species with little •effect (e.g. understorey trees, •shrubs, economically unimportant •grasses) •Proportional biomass of species • • • • • • • • • • • • •…the vault colapses! •If we remove the keystone… Biodiversita / Biodiversity •Increase of species diversity in the middle stages of succession • •pionier •early •medium stage •climax •/ time Biodiversita / Biodiversity •Schematic representation of the impact of r- and K-selection on the population dynamics •(Lepš & Spitzer, 1988) K – carrying capacity of the environment • N – number of individuals •K-strategy •r-strategy •K-selection •r-selection •density-dependent •mortality •environment •rather stable •environment •unstable •catastrophy-dependent •mortality Biodiversita / Biodiversity (see next slide) r-selekce/strategie K-selekce/strategie relevantní abiotické faktory proměnlivější a/nebo hůře předvídatelné přibližně konstantní a/nebo lépe předvídatelné velikost populace proměnlivější v čase, většinou daleko pod nosnou kapacitou prostředí relativně konstantní v čase, blíže k nosné kapacitě prostředí vnitro- a mezidruhová konkurence různě silná, často slabá většinou intensivnější konkurenceschopnost nižší vyšší životní cyklus tendence k rychlému vývoji, k vysokému rmax, k časné a jednorázové reprodukci (semelparii), k nízké tělesné hmotnosti, ke krátkověkosti tendence k pomalému vývoji, k nízkému rmax, k pozdní a opakované reprodukci (iteroparii), k vysoké tělesné hmotnosti, ke vysokověkosti mortalita méně ovlivněna populační hustotou více ovlivněna populační hustotou •Vlastnosti r- a K-stratégů a jejich prostředí: Biodiversita / Biodiversity (English) •Traits of r- and K-strategists and their environment: • r-selection/strategy K-selection/strategy • •relevant abiotic factors more variable or less approximately constant • predictable and/or more predictable • •population size more variable over close to constant over time, • time, mostly far below closer to carrying capacity • the carrying capacity • •intra- and interspecific competion of various strength, usually more intensive • often week • •competitevness lower higher • •life cycle tendency towards faster tendency towards slow • development, often development, low rmax, unrepeated reproduction late and repeated (semelparity), low body reproduction (iteroparity), • mass, short life span high body mass, long life • span • •mortality less influenced by more influenced by population density population density Biodiversita / Biodiversity Biodiversita / Biodiversity •importance of stress •decisive •low •importance of competition •low •high •low •decisive •importance of disturbance •A scheme simulating the relationships •between the ability of vegetation to resist competition, stress and disturbance (GRIME, 1981). •A – The sides of the triangle correspond •to the relative importance of competition •(left side), disturbance (right side) and •stress (base). The basic life strategies •of plants (C, R, S) and transitional •strategies (C-S, C-R, C-S-R, S-R) are placed within these coordinates. •B – Assumed range of life strategies •found in a – annuals, b - biannuals, c - perennial herbs and ferns, d – lichens, f – mosses (all according to •field data from N England) •C – Assumed course of succession: •a – in an environment with high (S1), average (S2) and low (S2) potential •productivity; •b – in an environment with rising or •falling potential productivity. •The amount of biomass in each stage •of succession is indicated by the size •of the circles. The representation of •species and life forms in the individual succession stages •corresponds with schemes A and B. • •C – competition / konkurence •S – stress / stres •R – ruderal / ruderální Biodiversita / Biodiversity •Total number of species at the study site •Vhodnost různých taxonomických skupin hmyzu jako indikátorů celkového druhového •bohatství (jako míry biodiversity) / Suitability of various taxonomic groups of insects •to serve as an indicator of species richness (as a measure of biodiversity) Biodiversita / Biodiversity Biodiversita / Biodiversity Biodiversita / Biodiversity •Current assessment of the extiction rate: • • up to 50 000 species annually (David Tilman, USA), i.e. one species every 20 min. • • 100-10 000 times higher than the normal (background) extiction rate • • the current extiction rate is coming close to that during the last mass extiction some 65 millions years ago, when, for instance, dinosaurs got extinct • “The 6th Extinction” • • •J. Schlaghamerský: Nature Conservation – What is Biodiversity? Biodiversita / Biodiversity •The extinction rate in birds and mammals shown in 50 year steps since 1600. •The y-axis shows for these steps the percentage of extinct species from the total number of known species. From 1800 tp 1950 the rate of extinction increased, while •it seems that it decreased somewhat since then (Smith et al., 1993). •birds •mammals Biodiversita / Biodiversity •Blue whale •Fin whale •Sei whale •The decline in the abundance of Antarctic baleen whales under the influence of human harvesting. • Biodiversita / Biodiversity •Recorded extinctions of species from 1600 to 1995 •Number of extinct species •Average •species number •Percentage of •extinct species •Mainland Island Ocean Total •Mammals •Birds • •Reptiles • •Amphibians • •Fishes • •Invertebrates • •Vascular plants Biodiversita / Biodiversity •area 1 •area 2 •area 3 • alpha •(average number of species per mountain) •gama •(total number of species in the area) •beta •(gama/beta) •Biodiversity indices for three areas, •each containing three mountains. •Each letter represents the population •of one species. Some species occur •on a single mountain only, other on •two or three. The alpha-, beta- and •gama-diversity are shown for each •area. If funds were available to protect •one of these areas only, area 2 should •be selected as it contains the highest •total diversity (here: species number). •However, if only a single mountain •were to be protected, a mountain •from area 1 should be selected as •this area contains the highest alpha- •-diversity (local), i.e. the highest number •of species per mountain. •Any of the mountains in area 3 hosts •a more specialised assemblage than •any mountain in the other areas, as •shown by beta-diversity. Generally •area 3 would have a lower conservation •priority. Biodiversita / Biodiversity •Co jsou "vzácné" druhy ? / What are “rare” species? • •Rozšíření / Distribution • Druhy s malým areálem / Species with a small area of distribution • Druhy omezené na malý počet izolovaných stanovišť (přinejmenším v regionálním kontextu) / Species limited to a small number of insolated habitats (at least in the regional context) •Vazba na určité prostředí / Association with a specific habitat • Druhy s výskytem na jednom nebo málo typech stanovišť (přinejmenším v regionálním kontextu) / Species ocurring only in one or few types of habitat (at least in the regional context) • Abundance (početnost jedinců, velikost populací) /(number of individuals, population size) • Druhy, které mají pouze malé populace / Species with small populations only • Neznalost biologie, ekologických nároků druhu - domnělá vzácnost ! / Insufficient knowledge of the biology, ecological requirements of species – apparent rarity • Chybná hlášení (historická) výskytu / Erroneous records of occurrence (in the past) • Nevhodná metodika sběru/pozorování/inventarizace / Inadequate methodology of collecting/ • observation/making species inventories Biodiversita / Biodiversity •Zastoupení katogorií vzácnosti při vyhodnocení 160 druhů rostlin na Britiských ostrovech (na základě geografického rozšíření, vazby na stanoviště, velikosti jednotlivých populací) / •Representation of categories of rarity when evaluating 160 plant species on the British Isles •(based on geographic distribution, association with habitat, size of individual populations): • velikost populace population size areál distribution area velký / large malý / small malá vazba na typ stanoviště weak association with habitat type existují velké populace / large populations exist 58 spp. 6 spp. pouze malé populace / only small populations 2 spp. 0 spp. výrazná vazba na typ stanoviště strong association with habitat type existují velké populace / large populations exist 71 spp. 14 spp. pouze malé populace / only small populations 6 spp. 3 spp.