Chapter 10 Who and What Are American Indians?
Jon Allan Reyfiner
American Indians today are descendants of the pre-Columbian inhabitants of the Americas. The term Indian" was a mimmwr by Christopher Columbus, who thought he had reached Asm. I he various groups living in iho Americas when <. i >l iimh n- imid wore culturally and hn^Liiiti-ca1l> different inim each other, did nut see themselves as sharing a common identity, and did not share a common culture, lopeiher ihcv arc considered the indifirnous inhabitants o: the \mencas, and thev lived by farming., hunting, tisl'iog. and/or gathering various wild plants. Sumo lived in larger cities, asm the Aztec ami I oca Empires; some in small adobe pueblos, as (hey still do in current-day New Mexico and Arizona; and some led a nomadic existence.
American Indian cultures, each group's distinctive way of life, were built around the land they lived on, the sustenance it provided them, and the many different narratives they possessed to explain their origins and the world in which they lived. While .vdKs.Nd^i-l-. point to a di-tant Win ancestry tor American Indians, their own traditional religious he-Nets confirm origins in the Americas, although sometimes indicating a Ion); history' of migration, the vast diversity among the original inhabitant- ul the Americas is beyond the human mind to fully know, so people simplify things to understand them. In that process, they can dehumanize people as thev focus on a fevs' superficial or exotic differences that separate
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tW AflMfltl
vlirh-n lit ŕiniujTv tvilh skm rtilt* ín-in^ nm- nf Mu- nltiht lli^lttftťaUy pntva-Irnl u>! Ihcnr -.nn^lilu jtmn- In jilJithm. medu liíIiti jmrllJVT.il Ihr prryn-■- .il , h.lrlLltTlalu-» ill m-vit hilt- raťf> in an ľvirki- ralĽd t.i-Jii.in Hi.il rii.tilt-thťm wm lew humjn
llnJuv Inilun» >han\i i«nf Miprrlvial <ruractfrulio .'ipsy-bllv skm cWor, that nude them k*i. J ifleienl Innn people n Europe. Aiu. and Afrkra. thev weie grouped in the u«m« mmd and hv earh Miimbsb to a wrpdf jtr raec ni* human K-iiij^.. Hnwi-wr, modem j^-nr-tk. >iudnn nhtnv lhal Umr
h1l[llTVll[íj[|!lH t h.ir.KliTl^riLS .11«' - Lij -h t11l l_l l Jil.1 tll.ll lllľ Klík <4 p^HHx
i .írutii** in brtw ctTi intln i Juah. iu*t hrfwivn so-called nm h n eutturr, rml i,iľ, th.il ,ii\ ti.^ u-. ,ii Kf ipi-.ik diŕtrimr. l.irniM^ii [tjiIhv .iifttienl n'liniLiiĽi. ľjljiuwnl íin»Iv dnsstlifiľrenlly. jnd »n* li-u nm is j lurni nl ethmKcntnsm. tho pív ieienc* that Jnrlŕ%1iMh Iwvr'hr poir; k i ■ hii iiry im ilaí tu Ihem m kuV» inü culture. Elhnevunlrism leads li> a devaluing l>( pet^ple i*tio linxk amJ/iir tonave díhVrentl v Hiiwetit. while rari.il andrth-nu i Li-MÍK'atiim.1 ha%v no hhxloKK al.> jeenHH' ru-i\ IHi" iii»-> nm itv.m irut they do ** ahWt people's live*. I amin the United States, juchaa those lhal mpp.rV-.I il.iM-i .tmi -*>;nv,iti.ie .mil tmnrusl initTT.ui.il liitiTrn.i-n.i^-have gieajhr orfrcfeed the bvrfc tri nunv peiic-lť En I jlin Aiwkj, Spanuŕi ťThomtťmb law» Lied Indian* tu »preük: lands, where they went fiTiX-il fei • work for Ihr benefit of itiliwfjs In Jil.tithm m.inv muntnes hjie ohVul n.-li|Sii«!i and/nr Lme^urA- W'ľitt pivieretwe hune MijaiKi and'or one or mm- 'natlirul" Iannu.w* Re b sums and Lins'.i.w■ ■< uhnu and r.H'ul mi-minlies m thesr i'j» i'm be des ,i liied or   en tunned
To undrnUnd the |tm rjihnJ djvniil; of lha prc-Cnlumbuin inhith i1jf>1-<'l Ihr AmiTh-.b. onronly nerdtlolook«! hV Lir«KU'i;ľ> Hht ixilľ jnd síl C fprik. Lin^uMn rvtinulr that I jrXi Jithwnt Lan>>u a^ťit ivm spo-ki-n brfoir Ihr Arrival of Columhui, with amund XV ut Ihrtn in Nurih Anuihd THry djvidr SiiMh AnifiKan uidiiii'ntm* Lan](kiaKr* Intu nix iw mtirrnuKir Ian^u.i^r phyki ll^rpt'rťlalťd i;r\«up*Lil Lan^ua^ľsr I .inKUijii1* in diffcimt phy U fan fcr as diHrrml as tnjiltin * Iran Chincso I jfisiwsc?. nultJikil in it      Míl" I.w»!Lb.1}>' ptivLi. ,ind i-m-ii in rlir srn.illi-r l.i n^^i^ji-
t.iríii ic—  thi—■ phi 1.1 ,in- . -IIt'll milhMlh  nr.mti- ll^ihl,- Ln'nu     '■>   I hi-
phyla include EaStuno-AJrul lan^uajM, such ai limit and "iXxpik and Ihe Ak'ul tjnuK In llif Li i miili, uni IMa-Drnf it Is ,ik-AthjkivLin l.iih-iíuj^l-. w nh ii\iT \th.tUitk.in l.ir'itu.t^i^ ťvlťrulin^ inirn ALi-skj It" Apjih-i" and \jva|Lt (Dine) in Ehr xiiulhwntťm l niti J Sutrs. xili-Ji.in lanftuaj!ľ» ,in- >pdki-n bi I'.kíMl- mnul fniups (mm liritivlil ulunihui I" i.In^on .1-. w.-ll     ľkilha-.bi kali^fH'l .iriii ^THik-in*-in lihiliii .uiii Msint.in.i
Codiimi Yum-iri ktn^iMftn arc »poken in La lilnmia and Arizonit and cn-cluik 1 lavinupdi. Walap.ii Yavapai, and Ntujave
VWa »d WX« An Am .tui Minu'
Aftec-Ianoan languagea Indude LhvAjřetjn. aw ul the látyynl Liti-guage fandilo spoken fnnti OtrgimIn Panama., and jlv Include Comanche. Shachejil rlurH, ,nw1 \ahiuil (ihc language m the V/icim jt well .1- ihe
kniM .1 l.inii.in tanuly. MicuvSanmn Lingiij^t"* nv'luLte thr Human Enmilv
of AHtMboinr. Onawaha. MbMe. Ho Chunk IWinnchago). Crow, and Mamlan, tiv ln^|tn>mm iamily hhIwJhik Ctvrofev. Siiwca. and Mntu* k. and the Caddoon Umily, including Canaan, Pawnee, and Wichita. Macro-AljtotlkiJJ' Lall>iuigc-i are Mudi' u|i Lite Algiitu|ui.il>. l.lmill ^ireaJ a.h.iw North Antrrkj And include Arapiho. (UackJnDI. Cheyenne. Cree. and l)|nSvva and the l .1:11 Branch t.uniliev including Alahnnci L hii kiah\ Chtvtaw, and š-mini^tť In addition, there JIT ÍMiLitt' LinKoagt~% such as /uni tpnkcn by J Puebh* Injun tribe m Sm MmklJ, thai iVMst iList,ifkJ ban mto the kmjuu American Indian language groups While there have been alh-m(■:- klink-.fiw AlikTiL.in Indian licuujgi.-? h■ cuiMil Eunfiiin and Aiian Lingiugt-- mi liJine, WcKh ,ind l.tporn-H1. Ihi** ertnrti b.nc been rejřťtrd lor Lack oť compelling e\ bdence hv nusl lingijkst* >
In I1"1 l.inn-F-ii-luled I U indigen.....i 'iiii'.u(n -'-II lOtAi n in, iv
I'rutvti ŠMIr* Nal.un, bavins; the mii^l -tpciker* with followed by
ll|ihwi with Vi.lMI tpeaken, [JokoU tilth H.W, Chnrtnv with 17JMI, Apache wřth and Cherokee with M ,905.5mm Un£iM£» were ILsled with cm]y I -praViT lei I They an* Con and Kalapuy a In Oivftim. ťyak n Alj-k,! ,irn1 LnH \1 iwok. Plains Mihi*, [Viimi, andStrano tnCalihirnia '
Unjtuisli who study Amen* an Intlian languages see lhr many lan-gujui-mr M..I.H ,1« li nit ing Inim .mw <u mun'i-arlt bngu^itn th.it hf){.iii tii di1:ir js ^tihi^s nf> .itťJK dividL>J jnd Mťnt thrii ntyarjtť hjvi, pi*f" uLiim^ilbť Aiwiitj*. Sunw linuLii*!* jllrmpl li' rmighly timte »hm Hp«-r.ifh.n- iki-iirnil K lili- .irn.mnl >hín-n-n.v hfluwn ^ii-.^m.ijK- H * diFlkfull tc diíc Ihoť h>7K4hťM£ott Bcyjrationfc hor irví*ni.-i*. Mimcrcniup^ nu' mou' ruidy kj btimm wofdn Iruni Itvu rkmhl"*- liingtihi^s iKm others Hnwi"v*r, Ihř \'*U didťtvnrrt that occur even in nni> Iíhikiu^ phrhim.uf cwnuw Lmkujk? tamUv. tndjtjii.- thai lhr peorjik who npfAt thnr bni^u-iKn tuvr turd in lili- AnifiK0» lnr ni.niv 11>.mvu'-.S
M.ins i-^-.ikjT' liI Ami'TUjin Induil Liil^iu^h mt llvm ďi viery im^i-Unt, 4l>d "pcmflc tnnr trihi^ whi' h.n,' li« n-n.i nim; ■.;*Mki'0-" .'Jn Is1 "piircvivťd a* iiniln'mn 1UI1 lndun *' TI*' Ltmiuvtkrn between lan-t-.i .-• v.i- .'in' 11 run ..ml I.i'.l 1,11. i^i- -t" ■ s"— " Hn <.-..•: |>,.|-l,' in.l.y-i.in.! the world they tn řn ha* received much ducuHion. Many sec Linguaea." an
1 iiiisx.-, 111^ Liillur*- Tins |*mlt nr viet^' in npmwj l«> .1 I'W-tL'niie l'IlIit
i i'm viniiL-i Vi1m> jii1 lluimeij; 1LIW .ird u% an' ht'in^; Ji'iultJ u> Iht' nghl In iUi|UJn- llul itiitral jsfA I |>I whal il mi-.ins In he Cheviiine htvauu- ixc iii*r«* U'*chm|(tluTn h'talkChi-t'vnne When ihi<s n-.u 1 us. when they arc bom, they arc going ro be rcleg.itrd hi being mere husks, ent(ity <tidbi They are siiinn h' kmk CTx-n-niv. Km- Chi-niun-
1*4
PUtc h Aawtci
parent) bul tlwv won'l have the rat^tiaaej.1 which a »jut;; bi nuke lhali truly Cheyenne.'
^Mime lnh.il mrrihi'ts .lurshnn it *tt can he Inilv Indi.in it ;yv' dim mil
«.peak 11«! heritage trjbol language bcninr of in dew lie to their traditional k ull urv t U-wľVtt, tatet «ml lewer Indiám in the Untied ŕrlatnand (_jiudj jn- spejkiiii; IIkb* ludilmtMl Lane,ua£e9 because l>4 Lfipjish-<mlv ItuolmK and Iht' brraiJuivh ni inolalml a.i traervdtkm nuds were paved ,iod rn.iv. media. t^pniiiMv mum .mit lebvhiun. t>^ jmi' nsidilv available.
In Aiií><n.i the Piviu Vadili Inhal Unguagr ľ.iji.v Mate» that "our an. lení language u, Ihr Inundation ol wir, ultiiral jmi spiritual hrnlafle."' However, other triooí h y what "Um nwlly wanl to hrach h identity, and language ]onl v I rffvo as pari of llul identity " Some tribe*, includine. lbe Hopl and Mim IrU**.. mv laoe,uae,ť le-M important Ymi ,nv ,1 trihal nwmbvt not "In v irlue ni *peakin£ jui ani vlítal lanjtua^ bot In parhii-pattne, in Nahve m-Hvium. including festival* and hcnerals, and In- min-mg thťir family and friends wlirtln Ihr rrnup ''■
lodav inl anada th.-rr jrrmw2W0mrwllv *n\.i!l Irnliininmnivhfrr only 'status" Indians cín own land I n Ihľ United States there ikimi th.in SSM hióVrally nx-opni/ťd Indian tnht^ cm Mť\ Indi.m rv^ri/ationv nioitli »m.i II and m íl* We*l bccjUM-ol in.'in mnuta! The Largest i*thc 2ľ.-41^-MpiAft"-n»llr Navami RrM-n .11 u<t* m nnethearaern Atísihu, southeastern L tah, and northwestern Nrv. Meviťn h\'hťn mmaliKii in ibw L niti .1 ŕií.ik-s and lesen c* in Canada nerv hnil set up aa a lysiem of ll'.nrhv .1 .-Mi ' !\ tK'.lk Iľ iii-  ľ*li,. r 1,1. I c  Indiaie. h. i-di-,1 hi |.i-l passes
Inim nin'iTmnml-appoHitrd Indian agents tu ľj 11- ThatiTj i. in* I, ,:i|-, >5orHľ, and tndav morv Indian-. U-..- nit Indian rvM-rvarmin* ami ress-ncs tlun live im them. Mem pcopk identify Ihrttvrivn as Aintf lean Indiánu In New York City In the 70111 MM than 10 the whole state «I Montana, which has mm Indian resrn Jlim*
The tninendnut diversity MÍ Indian Irilv. lan he .sn.il in museums aeniss Ihr ..smilněni tllat are lull nl pn~l iilumhi^n artil.i. K     ihi-ll .»*. IK-
work* of fontif mporary Indian arnjhv Some nf parbcubr note indudv Iru' QICIMM Musrtim in Tuhu. {tkliihuma. Hn- Mi-.inl Minim in rtvwilx. Arizona, the Museum of Anitiropoh^y al the University of Brittah Colutnbia in Vancouver; ind the Fred Ion« It Museum of Art al Ihc Ľnilemly of OUkhutna in Niirman
COLONIZATION
r'uropean unmiprantu ntkii hvatnl Ihr vanoiK indi^tinLr-. ^milfM popu L'tioi; the Arnericai m the unt way, crciiting a OBmmon riperiencc of íokini/alioii lhal «rl ititi apnrl This common experlerk-r included
Who md WS.1 An hn.n lndi.il'
US
JtnmUr, whrrr mm, WLimrn, .uld (hikln-n wvTr klikli. Jiul rthixxddr, whrre L-thnivititTK rnkxii>h KKight fei hmvtuJIv .1 >iimiLjtr Irulum mm European culture* Virgin gnmnd rpWoiHO. I hr HM ní Inrcrd re-míval telhnic c Iwewng I hum their lands, and fcwnJ awrnilahnn. Including outlawing religious practice* tuch as the Plains Indian Sun Dance and
tlx \i't lliv.es.1 Ir-Jkuii I'lhllaUh, LixttnbuttxJ tu a diair- drelirw m fHfuL-him. rsjxx-iallv iTauziulic wetv thk1 ienvil nMmx.il iettiriii' ih-ansingl nt ■■null's .i-vin L..S. Indue* nverlhe lrjil.it Irarstii Indian lemliirv (pns ent-dav tuijliumai in the 1HVK jiuJ ihe \ai jk> Uxig VYjIk In the 1-WK, during which thousands (if 1nhJI nx-nuxxx ili.il Furred Fnglish nub, .1-, fúnilatíonifl fchootUng in the United Stain and Canada further disrupted AmHKin Indian communities A stark statistic on Lhts cultural and linguist* disruplMin iinn from a study i4 data from 1\l Firwt \a1kin>ioni-mui ities, in bnhsh CrJiLrr.bLi lhal lixind llut tumm urulws with less < Him ersatwrul kruyw kvltie nt ifiL'ir mine language h.hd suicide rale- -sic tijm"4 gmllLf Itvm Irův*1 ivlth nuin1 kikiwkxlgr '
It w.w mst unhl IvCh lhal PresrdiTil Timniv I arter -i^nt^t the '\mertr.in Indian Rrligitxjf Freedom Act (PI No 95-MI. "2 Stal. -kfl) Thb act gjvc Indian- Invdnm in icnrxhip through censirmnial and lr.Kliti.ji.il n1es. including the use jnd piisuc-snien «l obx-Vts ccsU.idrri.xi sacred. And It was urn until ismotlul (ttNatrv* American ljnKujgi-. Ail [PL 1(11-477) nude II lln' fx4n> lit the I S gi'crrnnxilt to jinirmrft-. pn'ssl've, and pnvtist Ammrin Indian lonroiage*
One (umimTi experience el different Indian tribe* wm their youth* being mised together in missuma ry- and m>vemment-<ip*r*ted boarding seines \r idJuion. iritrnn.icriage he Ipod tu cteaiea (omimm Pan-Indian iJenttty Because ui inbertaeial a> well as mkYliihal mixing, who Lan be calked an American Indun .ind hi iw lhr> .lie k»gjlly identi fled is m com-pk-s mailer lnteign«jp ikiuiik ha» bix'n gi'ing ixi mntij tune imnnrtmmjt. and niixinji wilh ruin-Injun- hjs iKiiini-l Mru^1 Cnlumbus - sjitiir- set fix* In the- Ameik-js Kronen ikirJenVh (l<*Slr.> nmn th.il in IBM. lull lit .ill InJutH wrnr nijrii.il tn nur Injure- 1^1» nrr mmng wen! lwi thniugh. out the >ears de*nite taeial pniudiee and anlirnistvgeruition laws, with «<«ne ui lht-4' Lives dating bail lo Ihr I7lh eeniun It wa- ncl until IW that lh- ri-ir'.uii 11^ lr> anliini^i^iialMin Ijvi v ftvtv xtiuek itiinn b>- Ihr US. Suprrmr Cnurt In its 11•■nriajf ts. Vir^irui dtxisum Onr <if ihr flrV Lim agiintl IriteTTTljrri.ijie n.n p.i—-i^l ir Virginia 111 If^l Althixigh meslie jimisd .11 peixsk' with African .incearrv. p\'en wxnetínwn.xi.1 d mp 1*1 Alnein 1'kxxt LintimrMegen.ituxi law - mien included American Indians and etUsr ntinwhulBft.12
In tlx- United States loday. tribal membership is determined by each tribe using lb own definition of what qualifies someone fur membeish.l|i. Ennvlbnent In the Cherokee Mbe, the largrst In the United States, hi based on bring able to Iraoc ltw-'v ,uvL-»1n In sirr.iMnc nr. ihť Lionex Ctn.il tcolls
.9*
Rjct «1 A-ivr-K i
ol (.'iti/c-n-. -ii Ihi- Chťntfcťť IVatioi-i lh*t wjj ournpikcd hrtwwn 189*» and I -*> The rnv liti inli-rmi «ng <-f tiir Chrrokrt" ml*.1 CM Ix- sm in Hul IK ■dvnl lot girb [whk~h opcncd in 1X71) trval vviy tn-hol meflnhcrs, aj-thnuKh RM had H lilllp I / IKthOvtukMMiXKl Ln> [han 10 penml of tneMuitrth we«-lull Mnutí, Jllld in*-lhltdiif tile-tludeniS turtr I ■ Indi t Ivrokii- nr li-v^. Ani n-il.-li imli j-.-.inii;_i:i. .:i.i-r i-.l.i. .ilum i. J-, pnn iii.i.1
in (his sdumil" Fcr Ihc Nai-ain*. (h* wcntkl br^l tnbr in Ihť Unihd S!ah>. t,rihulťnn.Jlnwnt rř-h-i.--tfd c-nbťingaMe tis provi-ai k-a-a; iicijr>fnir1ti Navajoanceslrt: Whik- Iht Lnited SUHi-- Kii rilinquish4-d conlml ovot whci fjin hr a mi-mbi-r <if a fiivm Indián Irlnc ni lhr tribul -ifímp-. h* Buiwkj oť Indián Affaim in tne L.S. Deptrlmrni ní lne Intřmw suli main-Ljim- a iri^uiTviFLTil uí i-ne-ruurth in miiit kyi Indián ancialrY tu partk.-ipjtL' ni -oiru-iií il-, priorám-.
ThrUS. BUnmUWrtťf Indián HimHI" Stí ke (IHM pnu, luk-v liw mi-.li i-.il -.n in' in twipHaU .ind ,-ti-in-i icnv Indián lounliy and n-nuitv^ pa tii-n<« In hr nirnihťr-- nt a liiti-f.illy fiM.ijíiii/1-d Indi-tn ttibi- In lhr L nitoil Stalí*, Indiána Irvir-x and wnrkmg iw Ihrkr tntw** mmatmn hav« Inpay bdnl trcomc taxe-j. bot they de nnl have k> pay *tah- uiconw lnu and .ur ť-a-mp. ln<tn tlaíriakl laua kw purihawn lluij.-on iktrlr ir-í-rl uuixi rtw-n- in a va%t Ih-ki df Indun law dfaElny wlth Indián itjditi, inrludtn^ Ihi- n^ht to rvli-;i.Hi» rnvdom, rwniptHl fnim itatí- Uuhiwi, and InhjJ wiwipily
rhiT.- h.ni- hisTi .-.isí-*. in1 i-rtinw frauíl ívhrpr «ooii-nfi«- rlaim* Indián ncntagc with no pročti in nidrr w (akc- adi iint<i£ť ut pto»;i,irrw dc-*liywd ior AmiliLdn Lndi.ni1>. >Uill .i1- IIIS i;iť.lu.cl ijrc drhl ilffilm.i11-^ť flihmi al urilv«TwlK->and nlwi imtlIiiIMntlrvin^ tu imdMM- Jn.i-r-.ni anumj; ilu-n ťinpUi\ťi-*-and, jn 13k" i" jsa' lit univmitu---, ab-iiamiini; tru-^IuiUtiI Kkív In addiliun, IK- Indián Arli jmH ratts A, t lWttďl. 1111 -Oi-ll ka Irulh m-jiilifrtisin^ Líh pniruhitin^ nii^n-pn-ufilJtiiin in llin^ Anu-iii.iTi Indi.in and Aln^tui IS^atii-T n-rtii *ndtrah-i pnidiirt^ It i« ďr-;.-.: ir. rhi i niti-tí --r.iN-^ h. -.11 ,ni. ,itt nr r.tft prnducl Dul tfllwly »U)Qivsl> il i> Indián prnduoftl iv t producl nf» nartii"ulít L S liulun trihv
C ITiI E H ř HI r 4ND SO VE BEiGNTT
iVhcn th.- í S Ami' tnivl In tnirc Š.miliní Hi-.ir, a chiot. In rr
tum ti> Indún Tcrnd-ry tncm Ofclahnna). hr imounod hb tribal affilia-tuin and «uccrfsfully arg;uKl milí dtotrtcl courl In Omaha. Netroka. in I87U dul \.iLn,e .Anwrtcam at* "pencra willun lnu ty-cjturi£ ní Ihc Láv." and halv ti*1 llldit nl klk-jh loff-ni-.. 1 In jddilkm til scK.iiiÍLnj-, Ihr L_s línM-nimi-nl pnimmi-J tli.-iullni.il luiMormjlii * Imn tfibal miTii-
K-ntbip til indiMiíujIi-nii .Ind  L S. ťltiyi-mhip Ibn-uejt tlil' Irt-m-ral
Allinwnl Act of li*r (24 Mat VS. rh lil. í1? USCA Til i Thi, .u t «.ii ili-.i--7ii-d In hn-ai lip rnbal ťiimmunal Lindhiildiny-i inti-.in.ill u-pauti-
Who rdw»ih< hKtum'
Hi
(.lrmslruK wild "surplus kind' Ivinc. ^ikl h< mm In, I urn Milium-, nt aovtot Indun limh mild [ft turtlirr impmrrishini; Indian* In l«:t C cmpr*pasted trieIndiiin OtimuhipAd(43Slut. 2^1 .inn-. 4111), nwk ing Injure U & c it i a-tv.. but nwny. is with Africin Americans of the time. often till] could nut vote in electiani,
In IVW. the U-S- Conpvm pissed [hi' LnJun KiiT^iivjImn Act (PI. TTViMl Ihit mdiil tile .llkitnii lit ill ih'in.himn^; 1nb.il LiniKiin Indi.ui n^*^-\.iliitr- .mil pniiidiil .1 trjmrwork Mr InKil --»'11 c.i'\vmnwrl-- TTib.il members could elect a tribal council i» bikini'-.'. ,-nminiMw, ThrM' nihil KinnTiiwnh ■•'! iiptrthil itntrh. and polk* (nrce* Ama|or iefpslirive vk-tocy lor the policy ol Inrtur- wll-pwornmrni In roe United 5titrs wu the pjss.ii;vol tin' Indian Sdl-LVtiimiiijliini .11 j l.Jui.1 Ijuttjl AssisLlix l" A.I ol l"*7*(|*t.lVnM}r which (Tin idnl ,1 s> Iit Indian Iril*- hi inn It* I Il>t or ^rjiiK In i^erjlr tehnckli and «itheT icek jirvi Miu>h ajminis-li'EVii hi Nh' lh*n .in i>l Indian Arfain.." Hliwi-m'i. thr bureau still lsjvi.ill's -i'lin- Indian ihnoh.and|iiiliLi' li'm1*
Aftrr World War II their wa* art effort by the U S C intgrri* to wrmlrwte Indian rcxTvilicn 'to let Indians Irre" and nuke Itirm just Ihr Mine as other II.S dlbn. Unfortunately, the result hi-hnthvr impoietrJiniml lor mon\ memberi nl thf ten tubes Ihjl accepted Lerminatiinv A lU*i ode LiIlt Mm-m' 1ribmr U-i.s the land lliri hod levt, iitiv uiilerniumhil In the I^KS then1 w.i* .1 nut turn to IrniiirLitiiH' .mil .1 iih-si' km.iiil .k Rineni mint polirv o* «elt drlrrminabiin, which hidav include, thr right nl tribe* to dckmfnc their own nwri*crship In netghNvin*, Guwda, Indian l'.n'.K n.niM',1 u'liinii nit then iiiemrvpship In 1KB."
Adu* nside in llvt' I luted Miles lo mis i-m^nti Kis-bwn lariiv-Miilv .11-iittiillnu'tit i>( nn'tnben ut ajtae tubes Hut ire mm* prapeffim bn.juse Ihr) tun nimbiiiij; i.»nv» Ihcw trit^i ni.ikc fvt t'jpiLt niymiTils hi Ihrtr rmttlN'rv. ,ind , ulliny 1n h.i I mrmK-rship pjviniit> ttv inmijlsvd Inr thf irm.iLnin|; nii'inSfri. C^ahnfl S tuiLirvt.'. -itul K\.m P 1 ►n-n"ikr.ii'ht drcUnM in .in .^rr;iitki J -fu . ir.. jrtu li- lh.it ''Trijia] dLxenmllment n rum-ol epidemic proportion*.'1' Hnwrvrt. Urge tnbes, *ucb ■» Ihe Njvjiiw. jnd Cherokee^ thAt do niH pniv idr per tjpit* pd>TrKTrt» to thru members tuve itw if any db^nntlownts Jtvi nuke it relitivrlv e*M hit jriiiH| mii'tiiiB mrmhi'rihip miultiirnTitx tu nimll
^tjitmk; with thi" *dn'rt-livnl ^^1^^ ol American IniEi.inr. hiundiit in Nil, mi'irlicrsiil \ .in^hv tnlic^it.invd wotkin^ t\>^i'tlii'r h» let thoiT 1 ii^vn N' known lo the US flm'iTnmenf. In \*H4 thr IVjhoruil CnngnB of AnH-ric.iii Induivs wis lormrd. which still opvntestodiy to Rive voice k> Amt*riLjn lndun ouncerre-. Thr AnwrKin Indun Mwoment i-M\1l wis I.'ui'i1iil in its Miilil.ini dcrtutid lot Indun 1 liln^ntirn h.it lolliwcd the drnunds in' Ihr Buik "anther ind BrnVih Brti'l Rnmps However.
AIM Jnd othef hwtun Kniu|ii uiuilK- ioCused on tfellv rljdlf* <utd tht-lt nnhrt. lx the on^injl inhibiLinh nl the Am'n.l) utiVi th.in un rn.ll
PI» m Amentl
ri^hl?. Treaty, ri^hls are hwed líc* (h* pn* iraon? ol hundreds ol treaties rwgiitijled between Irin» and the U5. puitiwifnl hefoir Con^rľv. ended treaty nuking with Indian tribe* In 1871,
In i ipectal imMp to Conjpvw em Indian affair* In ITO. Pmiilml Kl> hard Nu™ anil ulam] i polk ■■ .i| Indian n'lf-Ltelrririr irioo
Thmnryoi Ihr Indljii in America i> Mimething more than the rwkI oř the white rwn'h fn\]iient ivgjr.rev.iim. hrnten .iftroetTviiis. intermittent ivmorse and pnikm^ed to dure It is a nwrd also t>( endur-«tt, of survival, tri atkiptittkin and cnrabvlly in 1hi- iter of ok FnvKrlmlnft obtfaeW- It I* * nami of enenruMi* munl-uunn-. in thi> Liiunlr>—In lb an and culture, tu lb iln.T.L;Lh and ipint. In lb -i i     ii|ht*l.in >n il i k tencH't>l p*urpt*e
It i-. liTitf, p.t-1 iirtu' th.it 1ly Indian polities of the federal pnem' rrťnr tvuan tu nvLnyiiíf and buiM upon thf t-apaotie* and iniirjiix. of Ihr Indian people Both a-a matter »I |iHm- a»d a- ii niiiitrr .<l enlightened wcul pnhcv, we mn»t henin to art on th«< ha*t* oi what Ihr Lndun* thetiuelvcs luve long twr tellings La The time huiäonv 44 bleak drebih rlv w Ith Ihr par.1 and to create the Ľinvdlllom lat é new era in vs hľ h lit1 Indian rulim1 i->. iK'h-Tminrii he Indian ails and Inviun ilivmiinis. '
Nixon .ippomfrd I 'Hit* Brute, a Motu>wfc-»S«iux rounder and rvecutiw director .-I IV National Lnngtes« of American Ifwli.tn*. ,u his eommis »oitcr nt Indian ajfam.
IMAGES OF AMEBIC*,** INDIANS
A lev Kuriipean* had piitihtr cirn^s til the penptt Ihvt mft FlTtl' ample. IVmnruc-an tnar Harrnkime de I a* Ca*" w mir that *t>xi crcafcrd theie *<mpk petipk- wilheui nil and k*iths*il mule TIh-k are IK- mtwl obedient and iaithful In their natural lord* and to lite Qinaftartt Ihey serie IIh.1 .1 TL- flu- n-,ii*( M'Lniiľ-MLe Lv.uelu! duj ■■ iMunns-Mur are ih»'*, ilii'irifl-hh'k', raihoriiuh, i|urrukiLľi, or vengeful. . . . ľlir\ mlllwr prr.'irv. iiľf tle^m1 tľ ptK,wľ%s worldly is« .hill-- Virvls Phi1*.' ptMTiť ivitiUI hi1 Ihr TTiTMl hlr^srd ir. Ihe world it tir.lv thi-\ wur^hinpi'd flu trtu' IhuI "" Hpwpvct the more popular vVw «f European» wu ncfalhv, ■Minj; Ihem
nalrtl heathen %iv.i)ib-» In l^^1 spam-h hi.nwii-t. phiKfnphrf arul Ihevki^an lu.in Linien Je Set'utvedä «tote lh.if «l-il- nukiht: n.«
nifllinuiiu^k .inj Irniluu^li Jt>auett raLll titlltT hilft nueh rj^r thai Lhe>-
entľridrrľd \ itiiKV Honhli-u. if thrv did rxvi Klti"U ihrir mnttxtniu« hLut-
jp'r with llw llt-hh trt tlx-ir mitnlii..'1
In |amo rtmimorrC*in*per'-* tl.i^^ii ;>ľr rh^rl ritt- ťj*t i'f i-'n-.Mi'i'.-'i.i/'-anj in many cither ru*\rl% jud min lev thi' li-duin atlu^of the fur trapper*
.iwl v-hUts m hemic ind nt*l* lndi*w*~othřr lruli.ii« *ir trll^ins h.'nnjn Mi'h lIU' in his ]s=S? simphslv novrl ÍTrr (.'.nrňUrilvť .Mm d.' wribcJ how vttlm in Ihc AmfrtfiWi Won wcrv hrwifcM up with *hMo-tímoc IndUn lymg. Indian rhcrt, Indian .1iK.H»'-d*'rtlm^ Irdiŕii i'hni*i .in.S prrfiiiy, bvlüin want of eonscmťv, Indun blood ihirsrmť-w. Indian diabolism jnJ jri IevJj^ii is Iii tx rubcd."""1 I hť ťdihir or Lhr kivim JliT.iJ.ŕ lii \i+ir.i%l.k ..n .'Limps iir Mil* .llliludv in .in 1K4K1 nlitinul wr.řmc
lh.iř Indian* "jn1 drktltl.lĽ ni .ill piomptmm ml human natiur, having no mped (or wont or honor"11 Even Into the lWk *igrw could be found in *tnrr windows. In town* bnidrnng Indian RMtvilkn ttwt nmd ~>wi Indiím ad defp j Unwed
v\i-lcnn.,>wl\»v .inj [iiiluri iuni:l» JnJ rni" íl- i'Í'ľii Italům.! IoJij.ii> .<«.i. kini; Wijpjn irji.ns jnJ llmMtcmn^ wílilť nimm, illhuuuh h<w-hm» Ihm' jlwi pmtrjvi\j Indians mi in - s n-|v!hi Iil .ilk js ;klinH o1 il whin1 Ljnd ^rabbiTs. J'opular .luiru.r /a ne1 drv'* 1U2Í ruAi-l Jlu lani-^*:/if rAMiiTiiiirj ÍljIli tilI a 1s«n1 n i i; *h \* x <l c1m-. ri \l V.m .1*.' Ind i.tii ^ In i m.irTÍľs z frriwlŕ while tr.vtvT However, when nV n^m'l was m.idh1 info a stlmí film the vsmo yr*r. the ending was clunked with ih* hero dying rather IhiHi mar rýmu i while woman InrnWimtly. in Ihr film II* v, hitť ľ s hjjv-Indián .ipLTií l-i p.irlrdvttl A* a lurrupt MujIlt l»Í Indun lund
1'htTi" .111' Ih^u-iiiiiLK ul tx-\4t.*> with Anw r i*, j n linJun   li.irji Uis who in-,1, j' -v -j Ii k w\t, \imTk.iri Imlkiiv-v Siiih1 i i-r-l.iiri hij'Jih ith|ii rum ihlľ ľ"--lii.lr,.^ --iimi- i!.i ■ ■■> ■- h i ■■\.l^^^■>!,■ m M .it k \\\ .in ■-
197fr di»9K Tlir ^dfmrMrrF o/ To« SmŕiT. Ihc iilUin b "liTJun |oc"—■ "muiOŕnn1 hílf+itľu- wíw umum women.11 bi L*uiii In^ŕllr. WUdtrJ» 1^55 Littíŕ Hnut on Ihr Prur/Vn hIwl> ruktrJ. witti j Indun| itvn" who ur "Uli,, thin, ^L-n^uuUttj;'' with r^a thjl n wvfc bLuA j c-J >hll on J ^litht-11% likr MUki-\ r\i-» mmI cht- li-^il hihíni^IľJkJ M h' Ul( llul mtfl piKl vku1 jrlil dik rw» Kirm dom ni<Ŕ U\w dwjv 'nim Im- nťr-.ihs<' di-HTipli-m t>1 thrn^ tt-A^k-s hv .íuíhť^n whn h\ ľ J ť*n tm1 ŕrmhiT .ind. hwul «-\bt*n«ixŕ fimtíct* wilh ]ruii,in-s Klu h .1* Marí ^imiii/'*. t4r.| Vrru WVn- tlir
Siomx) pfuvidtp poft-ihvY inu^t^ Indum tn fwtraít m -luthm* who often lud hllk' vr ivi twit*.t wtUh uiiitttcnou» peoples,.
Ti*t o!im inu^v-* irr lniluns,ift' H-k^iintn-iskiiullv ^oMtlVk* ^1 rufvirivnv Ii'«1 n\iliT\. sir cvm rtw pT.i'ptKTi, 41t LLnhnunis líními tittti di-k'nmtrbilH'-ti run-WJ E11 ihr ilLacLkprmTrl    .in ■ hi in.tl nh'nlih. .imtmjt; ^cnw InLti.tns
.iní! LhltlrT rji'ul ihT tíhnu* 11« 111<'n1:i-- U> lhf pmnt vs hii»1' wtuE t\dt^icHpd*f El iT-ilhm oř nithx pcopitr* rrynxfcntt the afc-r-iotulr oppowN- ot wh*i -» thought oí a» TtVfttem" *:ultun*-il b íw IV^PrunirrV -JwArj- r> At OW ptk || 4 nvitarn <• ťiMnn nf thr miôlť wjq/je js Hv nvnki^jl tmtian whi U krt i**iiv 4-d thi' tfixintfiiwiil. wtiik- rtm-tndi.hf^ -4lSlvm1« Motfvr Kirih wnw i-HhiT ■.■iii-p.f, n> iii rix. m-rs p,","uLii 2iWmrt'N*/«ľJr'1 with ťmllulH-m "
l'ri--14^ Ammi-.m Indien* cjiv lx> fnitlr.iviil Aü hv.h>i \t\ .in uKMu i-irdi-n ot l liiTi wilKnil iv.ir -irsi t uik-ntr unlil thťwi. «ruluf iif thr white
Rtr* t-i í- -     , ,
m.in rolťm! •■ A oiritTaViny i i.-w prví-nt* j Ml wlw --.niľ mi-«.m,ir-ki i-Ľitrm-d !hal lndiaru ipnlji Ihť "drvil., Linjjuaj(t"/ jLI v.irr>, nl uv aju-ry w» prameni, and Im- o* 'n*»ty. hnitiu!., and ihorl.~* An rxamptc ol thedrbttr f-vcr v\ hat Irid ianA vvri-ť lik* i*1t>ŕflnr<-vrf r-riilpin-r, Good evidencií iMju thal *c*ne Inhes practKed scalping befiirc tlw mii'.il nt tuixipcvirw, bul u i-l.ifiis-l. UitnidLiot-d ihr p.j.licť lií paymi; buuntiri im liHh.in .ilp. 1 hi1 I n|(íídl, ■ m i Hu- irilu-r Kiml, lucit. ruit imlv Ihi- -*alp-. in tru-ii tuh|LL^jt]iifi nr ihľ Insh hul alsn rtn-wKilr hrad "
Nc-ithcr iif ihi-r*1 cMrvnu- iinac.*--. nl Indián* jtv .uppnHed by rvidrrk-r-A* F«Ti;iľ> ft-nli-wirh writr- ir KriHif "iŕ WrirY Mať* InJhm.
i l.l^ll 'II H 'I . I -■.. -i. lln'lllJl.i;'- .>l--!li" .11 Milí" umri- Iľl.lll.lkĽ disluried n-rlii liiin nt i-ur mvii h-arv farme*, .irid wt-llul m'|i-;iiij;>. MiMim hilť. Im- Indián, .ire, in j wnw, lurr njlk.11.1l nii^hlltun-, líp menní nl d |C-uillY imjrjnjlinn . . . n-iiundiT-. nl j hishir. tK.it wr w i-uli I jin-ier nit tii n-nw-mhrr and . nfifLi-an^ iiur ŕ.inlaiiľ* k. ílli n-aí Iiíl- demandt '
ll.-i.l. -.m. I t'h-.i u nule rli.it   Xn-,-11 m- .hli |.-i Tt-i 1.11      I Ird.....- h<
reál humjn Ix-iniir. "
RJVÍ. I- <,CI|:Nť F-
Al tne starí o( thc cmUiry Ibr wfttwanl ťvp,ir»i<in by 1hc Urutľd Stálej- »*. neen *- tne .prvad nf demiXTacY By Ltw IBM* d »a» sem. ac-.wdti^toKir-jJiUid Hornina n, *v í -rtiperh>r raOL-oi Arm-flLan Ajik-U- Sa-^.-r& l-rinRilii. "jínnd -iim.Tilnu.Tit, «imnlcrcut pn-apclitv jnd L llr L-.ti.nut-. tu theAmentan ctiniuieti.*. Jik1 m itiľ wnrld Ammluin i.i Mi*-.in.iľ. « hilľ Armii<ait» Lanu- In viliv their niuntrv .1- ",i ivhiti- Angli. ľwn.m n-puMir; .ither raci-i íuiuid be ab-uirhrd w:hhin th.- exi^tini; racL.il nuu whkle rum whlti- ra.it-* i.'i in M h,- rlpiniu.!-. í-\l ľ.k.li-.i ir..m ,iny (.]inl j-.irf i. ip.itiiww a.
cUinm.'" IndMm comblutv-.! an inn-nor mv Moi-king pin(;n-M. and h-ould nui and -4 v-u] J ixit mjjyíyc. Kcnotr tht? pvpular trtm 'varáhing Indián' In Ihľ 1WII-.. Mexičan-, mu-nflen lumped in wllh Indián, m thu r j.i -i.i-.iM-. II. i-.. nliTninfi .-I IndLiii I-.-, in- j :..!' .n.ils/ati ■■. Inr i-1hnii .-U-annúig M.iris* tnbt-. Inini- bi the ^-uthraHk-rn Lnitrd Statrn had thi-iri.inď.t.ikľri .may.ind wrrf hiirHiillV n-nuwi-iiUilnillJlTiTeTTiliirH'. rwiw <Hdahnnia.
Duruij; Ihť Irsí halí uf tbc 180i cmtun' ltw "scientiits' of thc day dis-puled Ihŕ rill-poui idea of all petipk hvini; dr>c'i-nd<inl> nl Adam and Eve ■irvi rnund i-l idi-ncr Ihal Indiare. and nilh-f m-nn hitv rac» Hťn,' -tpjfjli tn-atiLicr. Thc- inlliK-ntul Atnetican rtch'iiiHrJ Samucl Mnrtmi studied Ihc Hhape c-í ftLull-i and ttirtkLlk-U5.lv mt-a.urt-d tlcc-m and. In ihc- pppaML rrude iirirnubc mun." In ťr.trut AmttiCHtt, pubkUled in 1 h VJ. Mnctgn
Win vsd Wh« An Aiwiw Indim*
lound thai "In thrxr mrnUI character the American* art averse to culliva-tim, and slow in acquirm*; knoviksJuc, rvstle*. resenneful. ,md fond nf wjr, ,ind whi Jh. de-»rlluti- nf m.irilinw jdvmiuir However, farther on in the une book he wrote that
It n uhuJ to (harye the Indian* with treachery: hut m mow instance* n v. i IIbe lound that Hies km unit rrlotled tin- jvy IklH lusness that h.is Ksfi heaped upon Ihem by ittfters. The 4nn.1l- ol Indun htalaiy jre ample evidence of this fjict A sysie-m ot cncniachnwnr and oppression has been practised upon ihem wrier the first Lrrtdinj; ot
Eunajsrarfc* on tilt- shore* 14* Anirm .1 thrlr kind1, kisr hrt-n seirrd upon Ihr nuHt Iru iitous prvtrn>tv .irid Ihoi li.ue h.wi no rrdma at the fund hi tlie while irunniotuw Iveti lntru'nled amoru; them to procure their mutual destruction: and when they have been weak' eneel by the conflict, the common enemy ha* stepped In and tefami upiei ihcirpci mull mi... . |E]very art th.it cupidity could devise ha* heen put in pr.wlke hi deprive them of liberty and llrfe 1» il siirpets-ine, ih.il a people thus oppressed should retaliate on Ihetr Oppressors* t h siull we stigmatise lliem js urcaiJirnius is hen Liiti hjve received w much treachery at dux hand*7c'
Still. Morton found tli.il
fhe IntrUectiial laojlbes of this great family appear to he ol a decidedly interne lu-4 11 lien lompansd tviltl ihue of ihr Cjik.i-.iuii ur vlnng. ituui rji es Pies .in* in -I. ml i j l erse i. illie mtrjinls i it is I ui .iln hi, I in i il >r Its.' most pari incapable nf a cim1:niust pns.iv. lit n-jsonuic. on jhstract sub^xlv lln'ir mind-* seize with atbjtrv nn slmpk' tni1h>, wtuU- uV-i Jt
once nnrCt IrhajfcrVTT nspiln1* lniis.riK.ihnn ami analyse* Fern bn vvheae Play have tW-el ml »anrjtp«1ii« align, arid havenmainad lor tnariy years bn civilized society, they lose none of their innate love ol meu oven nalmual u*a|*e-v which they base almost invariably tesunied when ehanee ka left them to Ltacsw lor theitifieh-e*. ■
hy the ]rVs|k tliirsni.ui nnh-* "Arru-w,i"> racial tlnsihsN. msstc explaining fhe emblement of Mack1.. I he cltMpprar ance of Indians, and Ihr defeat nf i In Mo i,. .i us in a ns.i mvr tkil reflected no discredit on the people of the United Stale* "* Sk'ppi siiense ss as u**ii as n tatiitnalirationfor prefudin and i1n[nmi Mkm
SCHOOL INC f-OH ASSIMILATION
Indians ivrreiifti'ii -vvn hv I'unipe.in Lmmi|-r.mts .is savaee heathens In be converted hi Chtntlaiuri. and nvtlwrd Indian* wen' ofien ijuW'k In
adapt hshimkigy such as guns ansl metal krm es ,iivd cuokviarv hut «flf much mcuv nrlucUnl hi gne up their religions, language and Sh.iv* nt lile Efforts to assimilateIndian* into tlx-dominám I-um Americanculture often met with resrstJince An Indian Nsirding school teacher rvn^cmhcnsl that the tribe ihr worked with had "J universal and decided aversion h> using lha" Lrtglish Language,™ as il "ihr limgue Lit tlieir despiMsd. ivm-GÉttSBU?9Schrwiis fur Indi.in studtsnts, ci en hsl.ii i.i'i hi- -*sii as plair* for ixYsiming while ■' Albert H Knrale. looking bark m * JlVywtr ranvr wah the lndi.10 HurcMLi iliat Ivg.in in luš*», noted lhal
Every- int» wiih which I luve associated is imbued with the idea that It Is supi-tiur to all littler piop Jos I Is ilicltitwrs air thoruu gl 1 h Lim-Mmed ní Ijirlr supěl iiirllv tmi aklte w er mrrnhers ol aU i*.hei tills-, hu I .Her tlx1 vc lull", .is v, ilif I has ľ nrVLX kmwen jn Indian who ■niiukl nxisent lit being Ľtunged mir h j m lute nun even wen1 he cm ^ in. ist tli.il sin ti a 1 l\a ngr 4 ould n-.ht ilv he .hi 1 'rnpl i*í'«-. I ,:
When he started leaching lev the U S govtrrupcrrt 5 Indian Bureau Haler renamed the Dunau of Indian Affairs) in 1899, Knaule found that "the Indian fšureju. jl trul time always went on the assumption that .ulv Indian l ij'-t.Tn w.i. per si", cä^ectiLinable, whereat the (ibkims .it whites were the ways nf cli ill/alxin In contrast, fcitui Wesley Powell, the tirsl din'rtnr of the US jpnvernjnent's Hiuvau nt I thm Uiigv. emphaiLscťl in a 19% speech titled "The Need of Studying the Indian in Order to Teach Him- the necessity of meeting Indians as equals and for teachers to first be student* learning about Indian* and working hi is in user their elders lie noted Ihr ntuxif ulicL-.if undcisl.ufcling Indian customs Isctere ititi-ticriiig with Ihrttl remarking IhaI Inn often leas her-. K-gan hi .ltlriinllng Indians r- i inui'i HiľstiIi i|';x-.ing Ihľ Inhal heliets and usatsi-* '** In n<g,vnl hi religion. ! '• -n 111 dec Lire. I
that si- Ii-m Americans vet realm' th.il nt all the fssipte on thai continent. Including even ounehes, the mni pnutound11 religious, if by religion is meant ftdk-lity In ich hugs .11 ■■ I 1 ihservallnns lhal are n-g.irdetl .n-ured. arc ihe Amern .in Indian- iipreullv whemer still unchanged tn in their earlv condition, anil this derpiv n'ilginus- Irel-pnjj "t Ihetrv might, if properly appreciated, he made u*e of, nut i*c.ik.-rked ,ir aVsimyed hi preTnal-.irv .Tp-pcisitic-n.-'
trom the verv first nmtaits, Christian missionaries worked tu lonwrl Indians 10 CltrrstLinin. olten workup at cn»«.purpn>es, ,1- thes not onh saw Indian religions as tlie des it's bul also saw Hithri Christian drnomina-tlcMis as, at hnt, misguiiied—if nul «hui actively in ksagur with the devil Ihe ', .mnu. I'niH—fant denominatiLinc disputis.1 among themsehes as
sVhomd Wh« Art lmni> usdiieV
well a* with <_'.j thctK >• tW etample id mtssittnary dforb was a smrtil school for "IwthrTK" iifxwt) in í "(innrvtkrul In 11*17 with native Hawaiian, Cherokeej and Choctaw studenu, However, the fcchoot was forced to close a decade later after two of the Cherokee student- tnnrned kr.tl while women - Iheschs»*! siourulers. like mam eijn^kal Christians,,thought
lhal Indians and other nnn-Chnslian* would ru-h toembrave C hri*iianity
w they «Mild nu k> Ile■>en •   r lint were minulu, ..-.I lo H Tt..... c,,.i
wa* In airwiTt lbe wnnkewLtrkl to Christianity as part of bringing Christ's second coming Some Indians did convert, but many itthers rvfj.si.ed
One cd the most famous educalon of American Indiana waa U S. Army ■li...-i Hi -. i r. I Koorv ľ. m -,- fired i .1 iki n.. I odi >■■•.!■<! I lot the woes: Indian war Lnrm Inim Indian Irrntnrv lo I ort Mamin I lonJa At Ksrt Malum Pratt Usal white wollten til volunlts-r 1n le.w h hi* pn*ssnrrs and .ldvuialeil then rek-.i*v h.n k In lri.i..in li'mlnri 'Mnít (lv.0 n'le,i*e w.v. .11 ciimplHhcd. ľrŕtt mmvuiccd sortw oř the vnums-i prisoners, lo tur thrr Ihrlr education al HfirojUun Irtstituii" in IS7B {a schoisl lot Imnti-r -laves in Virginia that wa* willing m í.ski- ilu-ir mi Mrwan *,mer»c*n eduralor Booker T Washington in hu cla»ic .tutobiography. Hp í nun ŠJroŕrv. is :ole.
tin (i«n( to ILirrptnn, I Inn k lir " t r,-:.ini.i m .-. building with Ilhorn seventy-Ave Indian vouth* I wa» lite >»ilt perv»i in the build ing w-htk was not a member of their race I know that the average Lrtduin Ml hiooeJI above the white nun. and, of course he toll himself far abin e the \egro. largely on account of the Lact of the \eLyro hat ing submitted to sjat t-n—a Hunt; is hull llie Indian would net er do. [he Indians, in the Indian lemtLirv owned a large number of slavrv diirir'j: Ihn d.i\ s .it slaverv. I lounj 1h.il llti-t tsi'h .il',-i I HLr any other human hi'ings; that Ihrv n"sr> mdľd lis kinil tn'atnvmt and resented ill tre.srnsiTst..
I hat r often wnrtdered if there m a while instirulion in this country whose students would have wekorned the incoming of more than a hundred cximpanicrrcs r*i another race m the nudní way that the hl.iL k slutími* at 1 [.uupliHt ws'ltomtd the red ones.'
t\hile Indian* continued til attend Ha-npton tor -n't i-ral deeadr* .írter Ihi* first group. Pratl did not warn American Indians to lx' gmurH-d is i iIs rskgrws arid suffer the same prejudice He successiully kibtWed the US. goveirunent to set up the first off-reserv attmt geivernmcnt boéniing schusJ for Indians in Carlisle. Pennsylvania, tan I HT*sj Pratt was in charge of I he sahoul, m detailieil dutv men the armv Hne of the reason* he chute
t arlisk' as a kscatinn lire his m-honls i* because the loeal (^takers. Moravian*, and Mrnrevutes evhibihtl lr*s racial prcfudarr lhati nther gmupv Prall saw nothing of value bn American Indian cultures and
IM
pi hwKi
pntmiiteil .in ■ i --—i r i • j i _ i T n in isř lngli»h-i*il> e.lu.atnn. Himi^'i'r, hl* nj> niil .1 r.mst .ind trlt that Indians .inikl he *>t;ijal tn whites .inj ni'n uit.T marry with iht-m. As »«■ S Drains hIkhiK were eMahlWied m *»imi-Uď American Indians. Ihrs.- schools were instrumental in breaking .town tnbal divisions u studení* from dirtavr" tntvs ;nnl. studied, worked
aitd lejrned LngäLvIi hiygrthťr aľjd es en Uttel married A» Jit teleni Inisr» nvei* rtl siirilar 'reaiment. they Ljirif lo sdenliřv thrmselvrs. as having sarniLu ßoals.
Time and again guvrrnmenl ofliciak havr overesiinvatril ihr draw ol "while civihratinn" i in riKHim/vii peojilr. including Indians, and Ihr cas«. oř assimilating them Ir was often thought that if Endure were not racially Iratrrioc, they could be "fivikeed" by putting Ihem in boardin>; schosris In j lew yearn " Ibis iif-innism w a* bated partly on the apparent success of ituiknta at Carlisle Ir LHNJ the Indian tímvaii'*Mipenntendml ol Indian ■v h...d.s. Mm II [trierl\, prist:, tut itplimisticallv:
It ihrrr wnr .1 sullunent number ot rnm'jtiin twinling-schnol-buildings tooccornrnod.ile all 1be Indian childrenoť »cKhiI age. and thf»se building could be filled and kept filled with Indian pupil*, the Indian problem would he »oh. rd w rutin Du school apt of the Indian ilrild niivv sis visars nid.1"
tÄierly t-nmpL-imrd that Indian agents, wrrr »rlerting inappropiL.il.' text
bopki and railed for the publication of a "nerie> ot onifiirm Indian school t*s.l-tHU*s" to bp printed by the Gcvvrnnwrn Fnnhnu iTfrice, tnaMt MnüV boeks would not "on one page represent Ihr Indian as a muraler, and on
I In- m-s! p.i i;e m pri - 'I I m .'- .1 h. i.....       I. 'I' 1.111.c     While 1. lis!" ...I
šeříte like I he i iiw (»aerlv advivatisJ wast*, er w rillen, hesiirmnii; m I«*b6, with Rouj^h km j. I vims—-Imnou school arul 111 iWi with Niavajo t ľirii-iLirsilv t ullŕgi tribes bes^an ninn inir, their i*wn scfniol5.lnet-urri.il-lum i:vlud.s.l lrih.il history, lan^.r...;.- arxl culture A I. \> small Iniilgr mm- language immersjnn schools were also started in the L nit.it Males and Canada, These whoob began instruct i.m in all subject maller» in the children's henlage language. Four bureau-run nlf-reM-n ation boarding high sehuoLs were »tili operating in 2ĹÍ16 in the United State* Flarvdrvau m South IXiknia; Sherman in Riverside. California, tTieiruiw.i ivear Salem, Oregon, and Kivertide in An.nlarkn lÜlalMima ITkir v-hnols an' still ops^i Kx-ause ..I Iht1 ln^islerwe .it Indian tribes. En addrtr.m. the liun'au nt Indian Education has turned one of the older high stHi".*. into Haskef] Indian Nation* Univpntily, which is Irxaksd in Lawrence, Karwa«
The Ľ & Ľnyui passed the No Child I Alt Behind Art ol 1UÜII PL <t3-feWi In an atlrmpl In .fuse ihr academie achievement gap hetw.vn si hlte «rudenfs and Native Anvncan, African Amencan, and Httpank atudmis lhal ha* lit linu.-j to penust in the L ruled Statt». Thej act put forward (he
w>in md WM An Am_un Mm'
N'tiol lliat ir N'.h hers wrn' |u«C "lughlv irualilled' jmJ ukaI "wHrntilically pirn en" ti ,\ hin^ method*, ltd* gnf1 cnukl be qiuri.lv ckmnd. However, *im
iur m prri«iujirtiitrh.. thisrk'welfnrt Kn hern kuvjelv-i Liiliuv' Ek-fnrv the civil servlcr nvTunvmenls wenr put in pUcrjl the em! of ihr I Slth century in I he L Miivl '-Ml--- ľni •• 'iur. £.il .1 gi«i tmivil /.<■ i-'.li..l nc is .Hi ichif.hl -uppn-liru; IVe tv nulli'il; [''dill, .il ,mli in IS' y 11 1 i. 'u-. rkítiLHl. Musi-firi. tlx- .ml lerviir rsimui.iliiin inslilutisl .n tlx ísmk like llx' NaUrJnvl Iracher* J laminatH in ut the 1 Wlk and similar eurnsnt rHiirls, tesksj Inj PnlnJ kiii'ii liilee rathi-r than li'i lOmpsiiTK u-"rss Lli, toli'.iiiiin?; lľd 1. 1 -nidenft Fslrlk' Hniwn ti»>k the civil service esammahnn In annul Wl, expecting "Im ho tested on |hcr] ti tne** to tavil children of 11 wvage race to whom the word education wo urtknown and who wen without knowledge iif 1 written language. No Mich text was ijlveri-"™ She hati expected
questions vn trŕvd luslutv arid tracrvinun luldilmms; the wh not even I -M whlill 1 r I h she wJs In limit. In elfeil, Ihr civil wnkr examination, Iihiľ I lii' h'.k In t 1 iimpecitii v k^r- ot kxlay, w.l*dľ~i£nisl at I***!, rnr te.h h en nt m.unstn\im -itudiTitx 'Ihis cultural hi.1* ritcludrd many potential Indltn teacher* i* weP **a few "frKnrnprtcnt" whtkf tatrJtut while letting through teachers with link' or no knowledge of Indian* iv Indian education Low salaries plus tile Delation (Irottl white Liimmuniliesf nf num -^hisil- -in iin; Injun student-, nieuril llv.il le j. hutg m I linn wis idtnt the List n-^tt lor !l\k hits, wtkl fould fk* hnd orripkiimenl elsewhere.
In IsWsM ,i special luhcnfnm litis* et the L S "--enate issued 1 scathing report cm the poor quality ol rvitiir American education .uid the ahitxr nf Indian študenti tilled Amenom bnii** {iviolica: A Nhhm*! T'lvrdy. ■ \jti.'iij:' tVu.'J.'r^', based s-h-i 1 svrii-s ol hviHiii£s jsTtons the ClIMIllTV ' I his report helped k-id lo tlx.- passage of the Anx-riLj n Indian F.dui ation Act m 1st: (Ink> IV of PI. »2-31111 litis ihl provided ssitme funding lot supplľ-tnentil pni|{riitLs lot Indian students. In Citudo, between skat and JH15 tile roi ernira'nl-est.il''lľJu>l trutľ and Kr. oni ili.itnm t'ohnmivsdojl dncvi-nstritľd thniiiKh 7 W11 inti'rview-. and ^ nulliím Jivumts-lt. 1 hnmir sjiiry lit mental, sesiuj ind physical jhuse in Canadian residential whix'ls that were lundrd by the Canadian govrmmrni and run try Calhoitc and ťtiitľ-dant rt-lighHis (.roup*, with the Last Khool&rkMtnK in (he 1 s*WtiM
In I line JOĽtt Canadian prime mirtnaer Stephen Harper aelmowksjgi-d
In a j^sei'i'h In the House of Commons the litKiimr. y* ill-1 .si t. in-.! I inip.i. ť. ol (. ln.ldl's reHiilential nhools fur Indtim:
IS'e niiw rcvogrnŕť th*l. tn •*[urat ing child ren from their limilies. w ľ unckrmitiod the ability of many to adequately parent their own fhildrvn and sowed llw seeds lor generation* to follow ,.. Not only .1.1 1 .n -111111 ílu--*- nimi- 1-. hildtiti. but as you became pantits. vihj wore powerless ki pniteet yiHjr uwn ehildtvn from vuffertng the name eitpejietiee. and tor this we are mary."
■ait -i*™*!
11« i collided thai ~Trir governmcnl nl Canada sincerely ancJogtzes and ask- the fcindYeneM of aixvigirul for failing them ao badly "»
Educanun pity* a crucial n*1 In affirming American Indian Identity
Despite the Lack of culturally .ij.prnpn.ile educalHTi jllij ternble cimdi-Iiita in mars -h hoob, nwiv Amrnnn Indians has r hern a.-tdemi. .ills successful t h vT the wans some haw bwaaif wcnwlul doctors, lawyers, and other professionals In addition. Indian authors have pioduced a vast library nl Indian literalure Older works iisclude Charle- K-tr-.ru..in - |m>; IWurt JLii/lhiihJand I .uthrer Standing Boar s l«2K My IVorrlriiv Ishwrv Newer works include N Scott Moenadary's !9ty* Pull tier Pnzr^wirmtrig novel
ftiiHW .Vfiurr of fldn-n, Sherman AlrnJr's Thr ArVrfflrtWy Tmw ftfifry iVa f'Orr-f'rmr rrrJjU'i, which won the Natienal tksik Award 1-m V.Hiny r.s-pli ■■
Liirraturc in 1007: and maov other*. N'onhsttnn work* include Vine
rMoria Jr. s d»i If Kfit 11U7J). Indian newspapers include firJ^N Ciwurtry Tufa*, a weekly national newspaper, as «ell as tribal ni'n -papers, such at.
the Mmtfo Timr*. thai are availabk1 in prinl and on the Internet
Si hinds today. tncludlnc; « Irlbal oislleges, in the United Stales and
Canada are working to Irani] positive indigenous identities'
CONCLUSION
The effects of colonization on American Ind tans was d irwstrous. Their population plummeted from e-tim-ii>- • " -»-ser.il hm111-ni to .1 link osi-t 2UUiUi, is recorded in the I^IXI U S census; however, since then their population has rivovrrrdL* In the 2)10 VS. census 5.2 milium purple hi the L ruled ^tale- *elf-klWiliHed as Amerkan Indian and Alaska Native, eitlu-r a lore iir in . nmhinalinn with in1 ur mine other races, with 2 4 mil lion  |Hop*e ktciiliiitll as American Intiian and Alaska Nalise alone.
Almo-t hall .vt the American Indian and -Ma-La N'ahvr population, or 2 1 millkn people, reportrsl N-inc. Vru-rnan Imtian and Alaska Native in combination with one or more other mam The American Indian and Alaska Valise In combinaiiori popn'. 11 n 11 experienced rapid gnivih. increasing by 3V percent »uscr 21W S_ttr^ e,l this grosvth may be attributed to lr» stigma being placis! today nn bring mnwhilr in the United Starter, as it tvts henimr an imn'iwngl) multiracial nmnlry.
Today mdlgmou- pcssple .ill over rhi s..-rd including Am.-r-.-.in Indians, an? undergoing a renaissance They have joined hands in advocating hir Itvir rights, including I he right of set 1-^1^ ern merit, the return ol
if   -    i.'l lands. .....I     I Irsc.:.-ir   I heir |. led :■ • It-   L ruled
Nations passing the tAx Ijiauon on the lijpjrlts ol Indigenous feirples in 2111)?. islikliatlirra- the rtsjhl nl self -ili-tensiir.ilnin lor indivenou. pssipU1--tmh the 1 niksl -tati--. L arviil-r \us1rali.i anil Ness /rjLmd stitetl agam^i ibfs decLaratieri. with the first ncditwi ol' Article 26—" Indiftennus pi-npli-. have the ris;ht    thi- lansS-, n-mbinrs and rewurtrs which it*",
Who mi WW A-t Ai™ran l-lum'
17
liacr Iradili.mjlh iiwncJ. occupied it (thrrwiM ust-J nr accoutred"— Ntnn the nni-4 pniWrnvihc for them, sinot thin imrluoV*all nf the ArnwricanL Leu prttMeiruhc t» Artidc 3a. which dtdim lh.ii "l^fi-jenou. propIrs have the piftht hi determine (heir own identity iw nresTrihrpshlp in accordance with their cu-&«m and tradition*" and that "!nil!)ren.-ij- penjsU-> liai e the richl k> determine the-.tructurc-vand Invin'l the membv-rhrup nt Itx-ir in^ilulrnre in *WUWlMli>r frith their own rnwedure*."" Airmrin other nghls listed in this dwlataturn is iha1 rtijht hi oirvmil the education ci| their children American Indian trine* a* well as indigenous ris-oe4e arvkind tile n upld ape vrrlni; up schiMls today where their chlldtm can be im-rnened in their rnbal lanjru.lire* and culture* a* well at be educated abtiut onSrr nahiHiii
All l.iui ciwnlnm thai vi-trd jr.-i.nM 11«' Iks lai.ilkiii nn 11 v KirJ'1-. ,>l Indics-nou.. TeiipJe* hair n-vivseU their positum. and Lin lluinhi lPi. i,n-.:,lcn1 llararLllbama divlanr<d.
And .is you know. In April, tw announced that wr were rrvlewlng our pcwltcin on the LI N Otydirabon on Hue Rights of Indigenous lYiiplrs-. And today I can aiuiciunee that thr United State* is lend uik ■1» support i. • Hi |. il t-i l.irati, in
Tin? aAfiirarinTii il arltnm* inm-tudmg Hi*. resjKVt lor the iiudiru ti.ii>. and rkh nilluroiil Native pce-pk-* an' nck-i we must always <M In fulfill"
While American Indiana are ciiten viewed and i/ic.;. .•■vnl .i. im-ml-en. hp
a sUlhtk' r.ki.il Krt-up. tlleir liiiHpie IllstnPir-. and k*XJHi.~ spe.ll. lr the n. h dii'LTutv cif the. pcipuLjULiti. (iKjav, thin an1 pushine. back jirairul the a-. -.imlLitiLHiiM L-.I111 .iii.hi.iI [y.lkti-. nt m-uk-r 114.iiu^lcm thai sought tiiem*' ih. it cultural klentilii-. lhey an1 s iv-i'n.usle .l.-j-rtine. Ph.'ir Pr.-i-.lnm tn drhTTninc their run dr^tinirs. and Ihcv are protesting racist ch.ir.vPi n .m tinna in vp.n-Pv the media., and elwwhrrr Fin rumple, in 2016 Navajo Naihm trrbaj ftiivetTUtieni offkials filed an »m*ii. brief with Ifie h>iirt|i Circuit court suppvrUn^ the 2014 cajiccLLilK.fi c-f. the ttademark tor KeJ.knr." by ilk- US I'aliiit and lr.idem.LiL 4'Hlke. »hi.li wan pn'Vi-.iu.lv i-wn.-d h\ Phr VYashinedi-n Kidskim. h-.iph.ill Iram"-' Am.TM.rn Indians' desire Pnr srll-drtri-iTiiTViPirvi is encapsulati-d in ihe I nitc.l Natkws tVcliiration im Ihe Rights nl [ndi-teruMi. rcs-pU-s and it. ci.ii.ii .,p a diverse svcifid where different pc.-ple-. tffl Atfl -■ultunrt can flourish hi scttini^. ol n|uaLilv and respect
NOTES
I AJapAsJ tnien Ml j^(.' i i w.7, jiul I iTpMI 11vw7l.
4 Nrrtv and Palmir 12i«* ÍWI
y QkL in RrvtwT I rW7, ml
hQtd.tnlbvlmllWZ bl-*3j-
7 UhCM. AwHtwJ. jmJL*«m317I. I in
V The tan Indian i ml ALrdj Natr. r Pcpiuuun: MIC ODIIt II  II..Mt.CTvmdler.andlji.r»>df l2]Wn
11 hWtk'h k-h I IMtej.
i ľ Cruz and IVwa (2ml I U Mirvrari (lw)l II. Tibble»(l«73j.
B -PublMT Iji. SVfcW-lan. 4. H75" taJ-X 1* Sunpwn Í2WN
17. Galamda and l>rtT*kr*ira Í2PIÍ. mi.
IJi \ii,intl«-|.in5.
V». Old Hi Brrthrfn 11 «7K 111 9) Ibid.. 12.
JIUthii>(ľ<71. IJfc «271. 21 Qtd. Hi Maid«* IH71. Ml 23 Kaird A <rvn (2003 2CTJ) 24. Twain (l«8,JI7. 148) K Wilder 11*71, I.U-lXl
suurd i      111. <ulw «1 t»g*ul)
27. Hier* (l1***
28, Set. ca>, Can* I33I$L lot an vffwir «ttw. n IViddciwHn and Hwanl
nam.
VI AiirSand kM are, (I«*» 31. Horde»** 11**. 17-in
12 Ibid . 1«!
13 Humum (Wl, 2) H Ibid.. IM.
»SmCouMiihii
17 lhid,7*,
wiwi^ti to
iv Ifc.ruruii l lwl viii «I CaUnllt«. 10. Ö)
42. KrnrfcIľWllOS).
43. Ibid.. 41.
« jwiiiuf* um
4* Ihld. IIJ-1ii
4c ivn..»'ľnu,
47 Vi»fongtn<<IVu.v7-w>
4(1 HíimcíIW4).
4». Anni^f Jtfpsrt oř íV ümn 4 laAai Afan | IMS, mil
Wtaial What AftAiwui Insane' Iff
Tit IhM.ttl
51 Kr>hnrr(201?jl
51. BnjwT [rV52_ 4»J
53. Special ScaTcnaieiittrT un bwiion FrBfjhm
M Notional Centre (Of Tradl »1 h^Kuutn OMok
3S. Itauet (Smi
5* Ihd
57 Hi-, Wr (7iM*i 5H. Thornier (l»#7p
W Thr ftiiiniri kyjím Wm\ Miilri -.'Hive TVinulUmn —P I20I2I «0- njlrtfcO Vjuh. tfcciaratui on *c Ri^l- .rf liio.j^m.u. IV^iLr.J (:i»J7| (11 TUMI HMMIltHIIII (l» ■MfcjJlMl.i Ki«M>t>nllMttun"(2Dlv|. *2. -Mélljci N*t»*i Otficiih Support IViMarr»Trodelhark CancetlHKrT <2Clr.J
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