Mineralia Slovaca, Web ISSN 1338-3523, ISSN 0369-2086
51 (2019), 31 – 60, © Authors 2019. CC BY 4.0
31
Principal tectonic units of the Western Carpathians –
former division based on tectonic belts
The territory of Slovakia is formed by the Western
Carpathians. Only southern regions of Slovakia represent
a part of the Pannonian Basin system, which extends here
from the area of Hungary. The present day geological
structure of the W. Carpathians is generally a result of the
Alpine orogenic stage, having preserved also remnants of
earlier Hercynian (Variscan) evolution.
A tectonic unit is here considered as the three-dimensional
rock body with defined borders, its own (unique)
lithostratigraphic, metamorphic and structural content and
defined tectonic evolution (Fig. 1). Since the second half
of 20th
century (Andrusov, 1973), the suffix -icum is used
•	 Dual division into External (EWECA) and Internal
Western Carpatians (IWECA) is followed after earlier
works
•	 The mainAlpine tectonic units in Slovakia are described
in the order: EWECA - Outer Group of Nappes
(Krosno and Magura nappe systems and Oravicum),
IWECA- Lower Group of Nappes (Vahicum and Tatricum),
Middle Group of Nappes (Veporicum, Fatricum
and Hronicum), Upper Group of Nappes (Gemericum,
Turnaicum, Meliaticum and Silicicum), as
well as the Zemplinicum with an exceptional status.
•	 The Upper Cretaceous‒Cenozoic sequences are unconformably
and transgressively overlying the nappe
structures.
Highlights
Graphicalabstract
Introduction
Information about the geology of Slovakia was
published by various authors (e.g. Andrusov, 1968;
Maheľ & Buday, 1968; Maheľ, 1974, 1986; Mišík, 1997a;
Plašienka et al., 1997; Kováč et al., 2003; Janočko et al.,
2006; McCann, 2008; Bezák et al., 2011; Plašienka, 2018).
Existing geological maps (Biely et al., 1996a, b; Lexa et
al., 2000; Bezák et al., 2004, 2008, 2009; Geologická
mapa Slovenska 1 : 50 000, 2013) mostly lack the relevant
description of the geological structure of Slovak territory.
This contribution provides concise information about
tectonics and lithostratigraphy of the principal Alpine
tectonic units of Slovakia in a comprehensible form to
a foreign reader.
Outline of the geology of Slovakia (W. Carpathians)
JOZEF HÓK1
, ONDREJ PELECH2
, FRANTIŠEK TEŤÁK2
,
ZOLTÁN NÉMETH2
and ALEXANDER NAGY2
1
Comenius University in Bratislava, Department of Geology and Paleontology, Faculty of Natural Sciences,
Ilkovičova 6, SK-842 15 Bratislava, Slovakia; hok@fns.uniba.sk
2
State Geological Institute of Dionýz Štúr, Mlynská dolina 1, SK-817 04 Bratislava, Slovakia
Abstract: The paper provides an overview of the main Alpine and earlier Hercynian (Variscan) tectonic units,
as well as superimposed Cenozoic “post-nappe stacking” formations. Simplified localization maps of mentioned
tectonic units, lithostratigraphic tables with emphasis on typical lithostratigraphic members and models of the
assumed paleogeographical positions are included. References have been selected with an intention to provide
more detailed information on a particular issue, resp. tectonic unit. Paper follows dual division of principal tectonic
zones into the External (EWECA) and Internal Western Carpathians (IWECA), which reflects different rock
composition as well as different time and mechanisms of their structuralization.
Key words: Western Carpathians, tectonics, lithostratigraphy, thrust belt
Mineralia Slovaca, 51 (2019)
32
in relics, which either were not reworked by the Alpine
deformation, or the degree of their Alpine overprint still
allows to decipher older tectonic events. The Hercynian
structural arrangement suggests the displacement of rock
complexes generally from the north to south (or NNW to
SSE; i.e. south-vergent). It means that Hercynian orogeny
had generally opposite vergency than that of Alpine one
(Bezák, 1994; Jacko et al., 1997; Németh, 2002). The main
lithotectonic units of the Hercynian (Variscan) tectonic
settingwereformedduetotheMeso-Hercynianlithospheric
collision, which was accompanied with a thickening of the
crust (380–340 Ma) and intrusion of granitic rocks. Later
in the Neo-Hercynian stage (340–260 Ma) the compression
was replaced by the extension (probably a post-orogenic
relaxation), representing the second period of intrusions
of granitic bodies (Broska et al., 2013; Uher et al., 2014).
The oldest tectonic events, which for now can be reliably
attributed to the Hercynian orogeny, took place during
the Early Carboniferous (Mississippian; 360–330 Ma).
On the contrary, the sediments of Late Carboniferous
for the names of the Western Carpathian Alpine tectonic
units.
Tectonic units in the frame of the W. Carpathians are
arranged in imbricated structures one above the other,
generally thrust from the south to the north (i.e. having
northern vergency; Fig. 2). The reason is that the Alpine
orogenetic processes produced the horizontal crustal
shortening and closed existing sedimentary basins. From
the view of recent W. Carpathians it started in the southern
- internal regions and proceeded generally to northern –
external zones of W. Carpathian belt (Plašienka, 2018).
According to timing and deformation mechanisms,
the orogenic zone of W. Carpathians is divided into External
Western Carpathians (EWECA), containing the
Neo-Alpine (Miocene) nappes and the Internal Western
Carpathians (IWECA) with Paleo-Alpine (Cretaceous)
nappe stacking (Fig. 2). The boundary between them is
represented by the Klippen Belt zone (Oravicum).
In the Alpine structure of the W. Carpathians, products
of the Hercynian (Variscan) orogenic phase are preserved
Fig. 1. Position of principal Alpine tectonic units and post-nappe formations in the territory of Slovakia (based on Hók et al., 2014).
J. Hók et al.: Outline of the geology of Slovakia (W. Carpathians)
33
age (Pennsylvanian) represent the termination of the
Hercynian orogeny in the territory of W. Carpathians.
The degree of metamorphic transformation during the
Hercynian orogeny can be generally considered to be
higher (amphibolite-granulite facies) than during the
Alpine tectono-metamorphic processes.
The Alpine nappe emplacement in the external zones
of the W. Carpathians (EWECA) culminated during the
Neo-Alpine phase in Neogene, resp. the Miocene. The
EWECA include the Flysch Belt, consisting of the Krosno
and Magura nappe systems (displaced Cretaceous and
Paleogene sediments) as well as the independent Oravic
(or Klippen Belt) tectonic units, built of Mesozoic sediments
(Fig. 3).
The Carpathian foredeep is situated outside the territory
of Slovakia (Fig. 3). It consists of autochthonous
predominantly sandy and clayey sediments of the Neogene
age, lying on their original basement - the European
Platform (in their northern part) and Bohemian Massif
(northwestern part). Assignment of the external Carpathian
foredeep sediments into the W. Carpathian structure is
disputable, because they represent autochthonous sedimentary
cover of neighbouring basement units.
The Flysch Belt of EWECA represents massive accretionary
wedge, a nappe stack composed of the Cretaceous
and mainly the Paleogene formations in typical “flysch”
development, with alternating clayey shales and sandstones,
deposited in the deep-water environment by the
gravity flows, mostly of the turbidity currents.
The Pieniny Klippen Belt (or the Klippen Belt, Oravicum)
represents a narrow and intensively deformed belt.
Name “Klippen Belt” is derived from their characteristic
morphotectonic features – the steep cliffs – so-called
klippen, towering above the surrounding soft relief. The
“klippen” are composed of Jurassic and Early Cretaceous
limestones that are more resistant to erosion than the surrounding
Upper Cretaceous and Paleogene marlstones and
clayey sediments.
The principal Paleo-Alpine tectonic units, internally
(i.e. south) of the tectonic unit of Oravicum, are as follows:
the Vahicum, Tatricum, Fatricum, Veporicum, Hronicum,
Gemericum, Bôrka Nappe, Meliaticum, Turnaicum and
Silicicum. These tectonic units, forming IWECA, are traditionally
arranged in the higher order zones termed as
“belts” (the Core mountains Belt, Vepor Belt and Gemer
Belt, Fig. 3).
Fig. 2. Schematic cross-section showing the main tectonic units of the Western Carpathians in the territory of Slovakia with marked
emplacement timing of particular group of nappes and the age of their tectonic individualization (based on Hók et al., 2014).
Mineralia Slovaca, 51 (2019)
34
The Core mountains Belt represents northernmost
and the most external tectonic unit of IWECA (Fig. 3).
This belt is separated from the south located Vepor Belt by
the Čertovica thrust on its southern (internal) margin. The
Čertovica thrust is a product of Lower Cretaceous thrusting
of Veporicum on Tatricum. The term Core mountains
(originally Uhlig’s (1903) Kerngebirge) is derived from
the typical morphotectonic phenomenon, where the
central part of the mountain range (core) is formed by
the crystalline basement rocks (granites and crystalline
schists) and these are overlain by the Late Paleozoic and
mainly the Mesozoic sedimentary (cover) sequences, and
often also directly by the Cenozoic sediments (e.g. in the
Malé Karpaty Mts.). Besides Tatricum, tectonic units of
the Vahicum, Fatricum and Hronicum are involved in
the geological structure of the Core mountains. The Core
mountains belt encompasses the Malé Karpaty Mts.,
Považský Inovec Mts., Žiar Mts., Strážovské vrchy Mts.,
Malá Fatra Mts., Veľká Fatra Mts., Tatry Mts., western
part of the Nízke Tatry Mts. (so-called Ďumbierske Tatry
Mts.) and the western part of the Tribeč Mts. (so-called
Zobor part; Mazúr & Lukniš, 1986).
The largest part of the Vepor Belt is represented by
the tectonic unit of Veporicum. Similarly as Tatricum,
also the Veporicum is composed of Early Paleozoic
crystalline basement and Late Paleozoic–Mesozoic
sedimentary cover. Besides the Veporicum, other tectonic
units participating in the structure of the Vepor Belt are
represented by the Hronicum and Silicicum. The Vepor
Belt is separated by the Čertovica thrust from the belt of
Core mountains, located northwest, and the MargecanyLubeník
thrust divides it from the Gemer Belt, thrust
above the Vepor Belt from the south (Fig. 3).
The Vepor Belt covers large areas of Central Slovakia
(Fig. 5) - generally the Veporské vrchy Mts., Stolické
vrchy Mts. and the Revúcka vrchovina Highland, eastern
part of the Nízke Tatry Mts. (so-called Kráľovoholské Tatry),
northeastern part of the Tribeč Mts. (so-called Rázdiel
Part), Kozie chrbty Mts., Branisko and Čierna hora Mts.
Apart from the aforementioned regions, the Vepor Belt, or
the Veporicum, crops out from below the Neogene volcanites
(traditionally named neovolcanites) in the form
of so-called “islands” or horsts. The largest horsts are the
Sklené Teplice Horst between the towns of Sklené Teplice
and Vyhne, the Pliešovce Horst exposed directly in
the Pliešovce and the Lieskovec Horst east of the Zvolen
town.
The Gemer Belt represents the most internal and structurally
highest belt in the Alpine nappe structure of the W.
Carpathians (Fig. 3). It is located in the Volovské vrchy
Mts. and the Slovenský kras Mts. and includes tectonic
units of Gemericum, Bôrka Nappe, Meliaticum, Turnaicum
and Silicicum.
Fig. 3. Division of the Western Carpathians into separate sub-zones and belts (modified after Hók et al., 2001).
J. Hók et al.: Outline of the geology of Slovakia (W. Carpathians)
35
New tectonic division of the Western Carpathians –
combination of tectonic belts and groups of nappes
It is obvious that division of W. Carpathians to External
(EWECA) and Internal (IWECA) does not encounter
any contradiction, because the tectonic individualization
of External W. Carpathians (EWECA) took place
during the Neo-Alpine phase in Neogene, i.e. later
than that of IWECA (Paleo-Alpine phase; Cretaceous).
EWECA includes Krosno and Magura nappe system and
Oravicum. These units are built of Mesozoic to Paleogene
sediments, and particularly the Krosno and Magura nappe
systems are represented by the “flysch” character deepwater
sediments deposited by the gravity flows (turbidity
currents). Aforementioned units represent the Outer
group of nappes, which is present only in External W.
Carpathians (EWECA) (Fig. 2).
The situation is however more complex internally
(south) of the Klippen Belt (Oravicum), where the
individualization of IWECA took place earlier - in
Cretaceous. The vertical division, however, raises
the question how to lead the boundary between the
particular belts in a way not split the same tectonic unit
being encompassed in several belts (cf. Andrusov et al.,
1973; Maheľ, 1983; Mišík et al., 1985; Plašienka, 1999).
The tectonic division based on tectonic stacking of the
main elements of the nappe structure, being separated
(individualized) at different times on subhorizontal
(usually overthrust) contacts, allows to allocate four main
groups of nappes (Outer, Lower, Middle and Upper) with
different mutual structural superposition and the age of
tectonic individualization (Hók et al., 2014; Fig. 1). The
subhorizontal division in this case is dominating over the
vertical division into belts.
The Lower group of nappes of Internal W. Carpathians
(IWECA) is represented by the tectonic unit of
Tatricum, composed of crystalline basement rocks and
Late Paleozoic/Mesozoic sedimentary cover, as well as
tectonic unit of Vahicum. The Lower group of nappes was
structuralized in the late Cretaceous to Paleogene (Figs. 1
and 2).
The Tatricum is generally regarded as the lowermost
and sub-autochthonous unit of the IWECA. In tectonic
superposition above Tatricum there are present several
allochthonous tectonic units: the lower unit, or nappe, is
called Fatricum, the structurally higher unit is represented
by Hronicum. Both tectonic units, Fatricum and Hronicum
are ranging here from to the Middle group of nappes,
where they belong together with Veporicum.
The Vahicum is hypothetical tectonic and paleogeographic
unit (Maheľ, 1981). The Belice Unit (Plašienka
et al., 1994) in the Považský Inovec Mts. was considered
as the main representative of the Vahicum in the present
surface occurrences. Structural position of the Belice Unit
is, however, in contradiction with previous interpretations
(Pelech et al., 2016).
The IWECA Middle group of nappes was
structuralized during the Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian–
Campanian) and is formed by the tectonic units of
Veporicum, Fatricum and Hronicum.
The Veporicum is predominantly composed of crystalline
basement (granitoids, gneisses and mica schists).
Based on lithostratigraphy of autochthonous Late Paleozoic
and Mesozoic sediments, the Veporicum is divided
into Northern and Southern Veporicum, separated by the
Pohorelá thrust (Fig. 2).
The Fatricum is a tectonic unit of nappe character,
transferred from the former position on the contact of
the present Veporicum and Tatricum. Synonymously
it is often referred as the Krížna Nappe. It occurs in
allochthonous position in the Core mountains Belt and
overlies the Tatricum. Stratigraphic range is very variable,
especially in lower members. It is a result of closing of
its former sedimentary basin and related decollement with
movement of the Fatricum thrust sheet on its stratigraphic
members with suitable rheology. Sedimentary sequence
usually terminates with the earliest Upper Cretaceous
(Cenomanian) “flysch”-like sediments (Poruba Fm.).
The Hronicum represents, similarly as the Fatricum,
a stack of partial nappe bodies structuralized during Late
Cretaceous from the facially subdivided sedimentary
basin. Synonymously it is designated as the Choč Nappe.
It occurs in the Core mountains Belt as well as in the Vepor
Belt and overlies the Fatricum and Veporicum. Unlike
the Fatricum, the original root area of the nappe is not
known, although it is evident that it comes from southerly
(more internal) paleogeographic zones than the Fatricum.
The Hronicum sedimentary basin was formerly assumed
between the Vepor Belt and Gemer Belt. Stratigraphic
range of Hronicum is from Carboniferous to the Early
Cretaceous. The complete sedimentary sequence is
however nowhere preserved. The most typical sequences
of Hronicum are composed mainly of Triassic carbonates
(limestones and dolomites). Carboniferous and Permian
volcanites and sediments represent very characteristic
lithostratigraphic members of Hronicum, forming thick
rock sequence of the Ipoltica Group.
The IWECA Upper group of nappes is located
southernmost or most internal, representing tectonically
the highest group of nappes of IWECA. It is composed
of Paleozoic rock sequences of Gemericum and mostly
Mesozoic complexes of the Bôrka Nappe, Meliaticum,
Turnaicum and Silicicum as the Early Cretaceous nappe
structures (Fig. 2).
The Gemericum is exposed in a largescale anticlinal
dome – anticlinorium, which forms the region of Volovské
vrchy Mts. (the Spišsko-gemerské rudohorie Mts., resp.
Spiš-Gemer Ore Mts.). It substantially differs from the
other basic W. Carpathian tectonic units by different rock
composition, age and metamorphism. Unlike the Tatricum
Mineralia Slovaca, 51 (2019)
36
and Veporicum it is composed mainly of the low-grade
metamorphic rocks with dominating Paleozoic age – the
Early Paleozoic basement and its mostly Late Paleozoic
sedimentary cover.
The Bôrka Nappe contains rock sequences of Permian
to Middle Jurassic age. They are characterized by
higher-grade metamorphic overprint, reaching in Mesozoic
members the subduction related high-pressure and
low-temperature (HP-LT) blueschists facies. The parallelization
of the protolith of metamorphites with the cover
sequences of southern Gemericum indicates that they are
most probably derived from the zone between the Gemericum
and Meliaticum (e.g. Németh, 1996, Fig. 4 ibid.).
The Meliaticum is a tectonic unit of nappe character,
known in present day surface only in relics, cropping out
from below the nappes of Turnaicum and Silicicum (Fig.
2). It represents a tectonic melange of Triassic carbonates,
radiolarites and volcanites, occurring as blocks in the dark
and black Jurassic shales and radiolarites. Sedimentary
sequences indicate that it represents former zone of oceanic
character. During the convergence, the Bôrka Nappe rocks
were subducted and exhumed. Subduction of oceanic
crust and the gradual closure of the Meliaticum basin
caused the displacement of rock complexes originally
deposited at the southern margin of this basin (in today’s
geographical coordinates) and forming the tectonic units of
Turnaicum and Silicicum. Decollement and emplacement
of the Meliaticum, Turnaicum and Silicicum nappe units
represent the beginning of the shortening of the Internal W.
Carpathians. Related thrusting and nappe displacements
maintained its polarity from the south (internal areas) to
the north since Early Cretaceous (in Gemer Belt) to the
Late Cretaceous (in the Core mountains Belt).
TheTurnaicumrepresentsanothernappeunit,cropping
out from below the Silicicum (Fig. 2) and occurring in the
southern part of the Gemer Belt, mainly in the Slovenský
kras Karst plateau. Its Late Carboniferous to Late Triassic
rock sequence bears characteristic metamorphic overprint.
It differs from the Silicicum by the occurrence of the
Triassic pelagic carbonate facies, by this way forming the
transitional member between Meliaticum and Silicicum
during the basin evolution.
The Silicicum, often referred as the Silica nappe,
is structurally the highest tectonic unit of the IWECA
Alpine nappe structure. It occurs as a relatively flat
lying nappe body in the region of Slovenský kras Mts.,
Slovenský raj Mts., Galmus Mts. and Muránska planina
Mts. (Fig. 2). The sedimentary sequence of the Silicicum
ranges from the latest Permian–Early Triassic to the Late
Jurassic (Callovian to Oxfordian). A substantial part of
the Silicicum is built by the Middle and Upper Triassic
shallow water limestones (e.g. Wetterstein limestones),
often containing abundant fossil remains.
Description of the principal tectonic units
The External Western Carpathians (EWECA) encompass
the Flysch Belt and Klippen Belt (Fig. 4). The
sediments of the Carpathian Foredeep represent autochthonous
Miocene–Pliocene sedimentary cover of the
European Platform as well as Bohemian massif and are
generally situated below the Krosno nappe system. ReFig.
4. Map of the External Western Carpathian nappes.
J. Hók et al.: Outline of the geology of Slovakia (W. Carpathians)
37
garding its position, the Carpathian foredeep should not to
be assigned to the Carpathian system.
Flysch Belt – Krosno and Magura nappe system
EWECA are mostly formed by the Cretaceous to
Paleogene deep-sea “flysch” deposits. Original flysch
basins were bordered by continental crust ridges, which
provided a clastic material to the basins. The Flysch Belt
is one of the few zones being continuous across the whole
Carpathian arc.
EWECA represents a system of rootless nappes amputated
from their former basement and transported to the
foreland represented by the European platform and the
sediments of Carpathian foredeep.
Flysch Belt consists of several nappe systems arranged
in imbricated style - the internal units are thrust over the
external ones. Mostly the Magura nappe system occurs
in Slovakia, and represents the southernmost part of the
Flysch Belt. The underlying Krosno nappe system includes
the Dukla, Silesian, Skole and other smaller nappes (see
Fig. 4). The lithostratigraphic units within nappe systems
are shown in Fig. 5. The Krosno nappe system is generally
characterized by variegated claystones, the Magura nappe
system by prevailing sandstones.
The sedimentary basins were situated in the area
between the IWECA block and the European Platform.
Similarly, as the area of the Carpathian foredeep, also the
Magura Basin was connected to the west with the flysch
foreland of the Eastern Alps (Rhenodanubian Flysch)
and similarly to the north and east to the flysch nappes in
present Poland and Ukraine (in the Eastern Carpathians).
The oldest preserved EWECA sediments are represented
by the Upper Jurassic limestones, marls and carbonate
flysch. However, it can be assumed that the formation
of future Flysch Belt basins is related to the regional
extension period in the area of the W. Carpathians, which
took place in the Middle Jurassic (Plašienka, 2018). The
former sedimentary area of the EWECA was gradually
closed since the end of middle Eocene (the Biele Karpaty
Unit) up to the early Miocene (the Krosno nappe system).
The youngest sediments are represented by the locally
preserved Miocene deposits (Karpatian).
Marginal nappe system
The outermost (most external) EWECA unit is
Pouzdřany-Ždánice-Waschberg Nappe, not reaching the
territory of Slovakia (Fig. 4) and representing the
allochthonous body (nappe) over the Bohemian Massif
margin.
Krosno nappe system
Several tectono-lithofacial nappes (or units) north of
the Magura nappe system form the Krosno nappe system.
They are arranged from outer to inner as follows: Skole,
Sub-Silesian, Silesian and Dukla (Grybów, Fore-Magura)
nappes. Only Silesian and Dukla (Grybów) nappes reach
the territory of Slovakia (Lexa et al., 2000).
The Skole Nappe is situated NE in the foreland of
Sub-Silesian Nappe on Polish territory, not reaching the
territory of Slovakia. The Sub-Silesian Nappe crops out as
a thin body on the border of Skole and Silesian nappes. The
Silesian Nappe is found in a limited extent in the northern
Kysuce region (Potfaj et al., 2002, 2003), where only
the Godula succession is present. Sandstone-rich Istebna
Fm., Sub-Menilite Fm. with spherically disintegrating
Ciężkowice sandstones, Menilite Fm. and Krosno Fm. are
typical.
The Dukla Nappe reaches the NE edge of Slovakia.
Its sedimentation area was initially associated with the
Magura Basin. Younger deposits have affinity rather with
the Silesian Nappe. To the west, Dukla Nappe passes into
thin bodies of Grybów and Fore-Magura nappes, which
underlie the Magura Nappe and crop out in the Smilno
tectonic window.
The most characteristic for the Krosno nappe system
are the menilite shales or Menilite Formation, composed
of brown claystones with bodies of sandstones and black
cherts which were formed from diatoms tests during the
late Eocene to early Oligocene. Another very characteristic
lithostratigraphic unit is the Sub-Menilite Formation of
Eocene age, being composed of variegated (red, green and
grey) claystones and sandstones. The menilite shales are
known as the main oil-bearing horizon across the EWE-
CA.
Magura nappe system
The Magura nappe system is the largest tectonic unit of
the EWECA, and represents the main part of the EWECA
on the Slovak territory (Cieszkowski, 1992; Lexa et al.,
2000; Oszczypko et al., 2015; Kaczmarek et al., 2016).
The Magura nappe system is divided into the partial tectono-lithofacial
units. In ordering from the north (external
units) to south (internal ones) these are the Siary, Rača,
Bystrica, Krynica and Biele Karpaty units. Together with
the Biele Karpaty Unit, which occurs only in the western
part of the zone and has a special status, the Magura nappe
system forms tectonically the highest part of EWECA.
Moreover, the Krynica Unit was as well backthrust southward
over the Klippen Belt (Oravicum) in the Orava region
(Pešková et al., 2012).
The rocks of the Magura nappe system have deposited
in a few hundred kilometers wide Magura Basin having
2,000 to 4,000 meters depth. The time, when the Magura
Basin started to open, has not been reliably confirmed
yet, because the nappe is completely detached from its
substratum. There is assumed the Upper Jurassic time of its
opening (Pícha et al., 2006; Hrouda et al., 2009; Golonka
et al., 2013; Oszczypko et al., 2015). Pelagic claystones
and thin-bedded “flysch” deposits (Ropianka Fm. and
Beloveža Fm.) deposited in the deep-sea environment
on the bottom formed probably by oceanic or distal
continental crust. Along with thin-bedded deposits the red
Mineralia Slovaca, 51 (2019)
38
and green (variegated) claystones, mudstones or marls
have deposited especially during the Upper Cretaceous and
lower Eocene (Cebula Fm., Ondrášovec Mb. and Lower
Beloveža Mb.). Sandy fans and lobes penetrated into the
basin and partly also on the slopes of the basin. Clastic
turbidity sedimentation dominated since Maastrichtian.
Each fan deposited hundreds of meters of sandstones (less
conglomerates).
According to petrographic and sedimentological
properties, we can distinguish several major types of
sandstones in the Magura nappe system: Soláň (Mutne),
Szczawina, quartz-carbonate, Riečky, Skawce, glauconitic
and Magura type sandstones. The petrographic composition
of the sandstones reflects the nature of the source
area (ridges/cordilleras). Its sedimentary structures are
determined by the nature of the current transport, global
temperature and sea-level changes. The Malcov Fm.
represents the fill of smaller piggy-back sub-basins. The
north-vergent thrusting by the end of Oligocene and in
early Miocene until Badenian caused the spatial reduction
and the origin of the fold and thrust setting. The boundary
of the Krosno and Magura nappe systems in the Moravia
is characterized by the occurrence of Jurassic limestones
(olistoliths, formerly known as the so-called External
Klippen Belt). Dozens of lithostratigraphic units have been
determined by the combination of mentioned lithotypes
and lithofacies (Fig. 5).
Fig. 5. Simplified lithostratigraphic scheme of the Flysch Belt in the Slovak territory (modified after Potfaj, 1993; Lexa et al., 2000;
Teťák et al., 2016).
J. Hók et al.: Outline of the geology of Slovakia (W. Carpathians)
39
Fig. 6. Supposed paleogeographic position of the Oravic and Klippen Belt sensu lato successions during Jurassic period.
Klippen Belt – Oravicum
The Klippen Belt represents narrow (max. 15 km wide)
and more than 600 km long morphotectonic structure on
the boundary between the Internal and External W. Carpathians
(Figs. 1 and 4). The Klippen Belt contains the
Oravic rock successions as well as successions derived
from the IWECA (Fig. 5).
The exceptional tectonic complexity and numerous
identified rock successions (Mišík, 1997b) and formations
(e.g. Birkenmajer, 1977) of the Klippen Belt are related
to the fact that it suffered multiphase deformation: for the
first time together with the Internal Western Carpathians
and for the second time after the Paleogene with the
Flysch Belt. Structure was additionally complicated by
the strike-slip faults longitudinally segmenting its units.
The essential segmentation of sedimentary basins of the
future Klippen Belt, similarly as in the case of other W.
Carpathian tectonic units, occurred in the Jurassic.
The Oravic units were during the Jurrasic situated in
the paleogeographical position surrounding the hypothetical
continental ribbon known as the Czorsztyn ridge (Fig.
6). The Czorstyn ridge was separated from the European
platform by the oceanic domain of the Northern Penninicum
or the Magura ocean in the north, and from the Internal
Western Carpathian block by the oceanic domain of
the Southern Pennicum or the Vahicum (Plašienka, 2012;
Plašienka & Soták, 2015). According to its different facial
character, resulting from differing paleogeographic areas,
several sedimentary successions were distinguished, incl.
the Czorsztyn and Kysuca, as well as the Niedzica/Pruské
and Czertezik successions termed as the Oravicum.
The most widespread are the Czorsztyn and Kysuca
(also Kysuca-Pieniny) successions. They are tectonically
amputated and displaced from their former substratum,
therefore their sedimentary sequence starts with Lower
Jurassic rocks.
The Czorsztyn succession is characterized by
generally shallow water sediments. The most typical
member is represented by the Czorstyn Limestones
(Middle to Late Jurassic) - the red nodular limestones with
abundant fossils, especially ammonites. Another typical
member is a sandy-crinoidal limestone (Middle Jurassic).
The Czorsztyn sequence occurs in the outer – northern
margin of the Oravicum/Klippen Belt and represents most
externally located sequence among the Klippen Belt units.
The Kysuca succession is typical by Jurassic
deep-water sediments - the Allgäu Formation, green and
red radiolarites and Pieniny Limestone.
The Czorsztyn and Kysuca successions are typical with
variegated (red, green and grey) marlstones (or calcareous
claystones) and marly limestones mostly of the Late Cretaceous
age. They are known under various local names (e.g.
Púchov Marls) and often collectively they are referred as
the “Couches Rouges”.
The Klape Unit is present in the Považie (Middle Váh
Valley) and Orava regions in the frame of Klippen Belt.
The most typical is the flysch formation predominantly of
the Late Cretaceous age, containing several characteristic
members with exotic material (Orlové Sandstone, Spherosiderite
Beds, Upohlav Conglomerates). The Klape
sequence is folded together with Klippen Belt main
sequences (Czorstyn and Kysuca) and in the majority of
occurrences the strata are in an overturned position.
The Manín Unit, known only in the Middle Váh
Valley (name is derived from the Manínska tiesňava
Gorge), is most internal sequence of the Klippen Belt. The
paleogeographic position of the former sedimentary basin
is problematic and placed on the northern margin of the
Tatricum, as well as on the northern margin of the Fatricum
(i.e. southern edge of Tatricum). The most characteristic
part of this Early Jurassic to Middle Cretaceous sequence is
Mineralia Slovaca, 51 (2019)
40
the Urgonian Limestone (Manín Fm.) - the organodetritic
limestone with abundant macrofossils (algae, corals,
rudists). With the Manín Unit in the eastern part of the
Klippen Belt the Haligovce Unit is correlated (Mišík,
1997b).
The Drietoma Unit is a structural element derived
from the Fatric nappe system incorporated into the western
segment of the Klippen Belt. Typical lithostratigraphic
members of the Upper Triassic (Norian) ‒ Lower Cretaceous
(Berriasian) Drietoma Unit are the Carpathian Keuper
and Allgäu Fm.
The Internal Western Carpathians (IWECA)
encompass following tectonic units, individualized in the
Cretaceous: Vahicum, Tatricum, Fatricum, Hronicum,
Veporicum, Gemericum, Bôrka Nappe, Meliaticum,
Turnaicum and Silicicum. These units are present in the
Core mountains Belt, Vepor Belt as well as the Gemer
Belt (Figs. 1 and 3). In the subhorizontal division of W.
Carpathians into the separate Alpine groups of nappes,
the Vahicum and Tatricum represent the Lower Group of
Nappes, the Fatricum, Hronicum and Veporicum represent
the Middle Group of Nappes and the Gemericum, Bôrka
Nappe, Meliaticum, Turnaicum and Silicicum represent
the Upper Group of Nappes (Fig. 1).
The Lower Group of Nappes
The rock complexes of the Lower Group of Nappes
(Vahicum and Tatricum), crop out mainly in the Core
mountains Belt (Figs. 2 and 7).
Vahicum
The Vahicum is a hypothetical tectonic unit paleogeographicaly
situated in the frontal part of the IWECA (Fig.
6) and considered as an equivalent of the Alpine Penninicum
(Maheľ, 1981). Supposed oceanic crust of the Vahicum
is unknown from the surface presence. Some authors
parallelize Vahicum with occurrences of Upper Cretaceous
Horné Belice Group (Belice Unit) in the Považský Inovec
Mts. (Plašienka et al., 1994). Substantial part of the Horné
Belice Group is represented by the Late Cretaceous (Turonian–Maastrichtian)
turbidites (“flysch”), with occurrences
of olistoliths of crystalline basement, and Early Triassic
to Upper Cretaceous sediments (Rakús in Ivanička et al.,
2011; Pelech et al., 2016). Similar formations also occur
in the borehole SBM-1 Soblahov east of Trenčín (Maheľ,
1985), as well as above Tatric sedimentary cover east of
Piešťany (Pelech et al., 2017). The sediments of the Horné
Belice Group in the Považský Inovec Mts. are therefore of
unclear tectonic affiliation and probably represent a remnant
of larger sedimentary wedge-top basin adjacent to the
IWECA area (Pelech et al., 2016).
Tatricum
Tectonic unit of Tatricum contains Hercynian crystalline
basement rocks (granitoids, gneisses and mica schists),
covered by the Late Paleozoic (rarely Carboniferous, more
often Permian) and Mesozoic rocks, deposited directly on
the basement.
The crystalline basement rocks of the Tatricum
were formed by the Hercynian magmatic and
tectono-metamorphicprocesses.ConcerningtheHercynian
structure, it is not possible to distinguish between the
Tatricum and Veporicum crystalline basements, forming
during Hercynian orogeny the uniform stabilized unit, later
overlapped by cover sequences. The Hercynian tectonics
Fig. 7. Position of rock complexes of tectonic units of Vahicum and Tatricum of the Lower Group of Nappes (based on Hók et al.,
2014).
J. Hók et al.: Outline of the geology of Slovakia (W. Carpathians)
41
had the opposite polarity (south-vergent) than the Alpine
one – so being thrust generally from the north to south,
the high grade metamorphic rocks were structurally the
highest and their relics are today found in the northernmost
(most external) part of this unit and vice versa – the low
grade metamorphic rocks are the lowest and their relics are
preserved in the south (Bezák, 1994). The Alpine northvergent
nappes overprinted the pre-existing structure,
making the reconstruction of the original position of the
Hercynian tectonic units rather complicated (Hrouda et
al., 2002). Based on the present state of knowledge, it is
possible to reconstruct the Hercynian structure into the
following three units (Bezák, 1994):
Upper Lithotectonic Unit (ULU) – composed of
high-grade metamorphic rocks (gneisses, migmatites,
granitoids and amphibolites) it is present predominantly in
the Core mountains;
Middle Lithotectonic Unit (MLU) – forms the substantial
part of the Veporicum crystalline basement and
consists of gneisses, mica schists and relicts of low-grade
metamorphic rocks;
Lower Lithotectonic Unit (LLU) – is present in
southernmost zones of the Veporicum and consists of low
grade metamorphic crystalline schists.
Lithological composition of the aforementioned units
is even more complicated in detail. Lower-grade metamorphic
sequences occur within each lithotectonic unit and
paragneisses are intruded by granitoid rocks of different
ages (Bezák et al., 2004). The Upper Lithotectonic Unit
is overlain by a separate complex with characteristic lowgrade
metamorphic rocks known as the Upper Epizonal
Complex (e.g. the Pernek Group in the Malé Karpaty
Mts.).
Upper Lithotectonic Unit
Protolith of the ULU metamorphites was represented
mainly by greywackes with smaller proportion of sandstones
and basic volcanic rocks. These complexes were
partly intruded by granitoids, later transformed to or-
thogneisses.
The reconstruction of the tectonic relationships indicates
that these complexes in the highest position are
usually overlying the medium-grade metamorphic rocks.
It is best seen in the Západné Tatry Mts. (Janák, 1994) and
in the eastern Nízke Tatry Mts. The ULU occurs mainly
in the Core mountains Belt (Tatry, Nízke Tatry, Branisko
a Čierna hora, Malá Fatra, Strážovské vrchy and Považský
Inovec Mts.).
The ULU contains also probably Early Paleozoic
low-grade metamorphic complexes (greenschist facies;
so-called upper epizonal complexes) occurring in isolated
occurrences within the higher metamorphic crystalline
basement rocks of the Tatricum and Veporicum, having
local names according their regional distribution. Locally
they overlie the older granites (Klinisko Phyllites on the
northern slopes of the Ďumbierske Tatry Mts), or they are
affected by the contact metamorphism of nearby granitoids
(i.e. being metamorphosed by the heat rising from the
granite magma, e.g. Harmónia Series or Pezinok Group
in the Malé Karpaty Mts). Other occurrences encompass
the metasediments in the Bukovecká dolina Valley on
the southern slopes of the Ďumbierske Tatry Mts. and
occurrences in the Veporicum crystalline basement –
the Jánov grúň Complex, Predná hoľa Complex and the
Krakľová Fm.
Middle Lithotectonic Unit
The Middle Lithotectonic Unit is known mainly from
the Veporicum (Putiš et al., 1997), however occurs also
in several Core mountains as the Malé Karpaty Mts., Považský
Inovec Mts. and Tribeč Mts. MLU is built of mica
schist to gneiss complexes with amphibolites, locally orthogneisses
and minor metaquartzites, graphitic gneisses
and metamorphosed sedimentary Fe-ores. Several complexes
of the MLU are described from the Northern Veporicum
(Hron, Čierny Balog and Kráľova hoľa complexes).
Lower Lithotectonic Unit
Thelow-grademetamorphiccomplexeswithvariegated
lithology, assigned to the LLU, occur in the Southern
Veporicum (e.g. Ostrá, Klenovec and Sinec complexes), as
well as within the Pezinok-Pernek Series (Pernek Group)
in the Malé Karpaty Mts.
The vast majority of the Tatricum granitoid rocks
are Carboniferous in age. The youngest granitoid rocks
are known in the area of Rochovce (Rochovce granite).
They are however known only in the sub-surface position,
originally due to their contact metamorphism of the
surrounding rocks. The 80 Ma age of intrusion was based
on radiometric dating (Hraško et al., 1999).
Tatricum sedimentary cover sequences
The crystalline basement was deeply eroded after
the end of the Hercynian tectogenesis and the evolving
depressions were gradually filled with the Late Paleozoic
continental sediments. Carboniferous sediments are known
only in the northern Považský Inovec Mts. (Novianska
dolina Fm.). The Permian sediments occur in a limited
extent in the Malé Karpaty Mts. (Devín Fm.), Považský
Inovec Mts. (Kálnica Group), Tribeč Mts. (Skýcov Fm.
and Slopňa Fm.), Malá Fatra Mts. (Stráňanský potok Fm.),
Tatry Mts. (Meďodoly Fm.) and Ďumbier part of the Nízke
Tatry Mts. (Vážna Fm.). They consist of greywackes,
arkoses, sandstones and shales of generally variegated
colours (red, purple, green). The composition of the
sediments and their weak sorting reflects the proximity
of the source area (consisting of granites and crystalline
schists clasts) and generally short transport (Vozárová &
Vozár, 1988).
The Mesozoic sedimentary sequence starts in the
Early Triassic and continues with several gaps up to the
Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian) with exception of the
Mineralia Slovaca, 51 (2019)
42
Považský Inovec Mts. (Campanian), Tatry and Veľká Fatra
Mts., where the sedimentary record ends in the middle
Turonian (Pelech et al., 2017 and references herein). The
Lower Triassic rocks in the whole Tatricum region are
characterized by the quartzites and shales (Lúžna Fm.),
which are discordantly overlying the Permian rocks or
more often directly the crystalline basement. The quarzites
representthecontinentalsedimentation,beingintheMiddle
Triassic replaced by the marine carbonate sedimentation
(Gutenstein Limestone and Ramsau Dolomite). During
the Late Triassic the sedimentation continued in shallower
lagoonar and continental (terrestrial) conditions.
Succession of versicolour sediments (red, violet, yellow
sandstones, shales and dolomites) is referred to as the
Carpathian Keuper. The latest Triassic (Rhaetian) in the
Tatricum region is characterized by a discontinuity in
sedimentation. The continental sediments of the Late
Triassic are preserved in the Tichá dolina Valley in the
Tatry Mts. (Tomanová Fm.), where the footprints of
dinosaur were found (see Niedźwiedzki, 2011). Nondeposition
and often a significant erosion occurred in the
Early Jurassic due to major paleogeographyc changes
in the Tethyan region (Plašienka, 2018). In the Middle
Jurassic the sedimentation in the Tatricum was divided
into two contrasting facies - the deep-water type facies
(Fatra type or synonymously Šiprúň type), containing a
Middle Jurassic radiolarites, radiolarian limestones and
Fig. 8. Simplified lithostratigraphic column of the Tatric sedimentary
cover sequence (modified after Biely et al., 1996a).
J. Hók et al.: Outline of the geology of Slovakia (W. Carpathians)
43
Fig. 9. Position of the tectonic units of Middle Group of Nappes (based on Hók et al., 2014). Dark-red colour indicates position of
Veporicum, depicted in Fig. 10 below.
Fig. 10. Tectonic scheme of essential portion of the Veporicum, present in the Veporské vrchy Mts., Stolické vrchy Mts. and Revúcka
vrchovina Mts. (modified after Hók et al., 2001).
Mineralia Slovaca, 51 (2019)
44
spotted marly limestones and shales (“Fleckenmergel” ‒
Allgäu Fm.), and the shallow water facies (Tatra type),
characterized by the crinoid and sandy limestones (Hierlatz
Limestone).
The Fatra type of the sedimentary cover sequences
occurs in the Veľká Fatra Mts., Malá Fatra Mts., Považský
Inovec Mts. and Strážovské vrchy Mts. The Tatra type
occurs in the Tatry, Nízke Tatry Mts. and Tribeč Mts.
Beside the aforementioned basic facial types a number
of specific successions occurs in the particular Core
mountains. Typical example represent the cover sequences
in the Malé Karpaty Mts., among which the Borinka
succession exhibits a contrasting difference from all other
sedimentary cover sequences (Plašienka, 2012).
The Tatricum was considered structurally as the
lowermost tectonic unit in the frame of Alpine setting
of Internal Western Carpathians, which is overridden by
other tectonic units, forming large-scale nappe structures.
The internal structure of the Tatricum itself is however
considerably complicated with a wide range of partial
thrusts, duplexes in the sedimentary cover sequences,
as well as crystalline basement, e.g. fold of Giewont
and Červené vrchy in the Tatry Mts., fold of Tlstá in
the Nízke Tatry Mts., Žibrica duplex in the Tribeč Mts.
The allochthonity (nappe position) of the granitoid rocks
forming the Bratislava and Modra bodies was documented
in the Malé Karpaty Mts. The granitoid bodies are thrust
over the Borinka cover succession. The Borinka sequence
is due to its facial difference and the allochthonous position
of granitoids considered to be even lower tectonic element
than Tatricum (i.e. Infratatricum; Plašienka et al., 1997).
Middle Group of Nappes
The Middle Group of Nappes is represented by Veporicum
(crystalline basement and sedimentary cover
sequences), which occurs in the Vepor Belt (Fig. 9) and
thin-skinned nappes of Fatricum and Hronicum that overlie
tectonic units of Tatricum and Veporicum in the Core
mountains Belt and the Vepor Belt (Fig. 1).
Veporicum
Veporicum covers significant part of Central Slovakia
(Figs. 1, 9 and 10). The Vepor Belt is divided from the
Core mountains Belt (Tatricum) by the Čertovica
thrust and from the Gemer Belt (Gemericum) by the
Margecany-Lubeník thrust. The Gemer Belt is thrust
over the Vepor Belt. The largest part of the Vepor Belt is
built by the Veporicum. Other tectonic units involved in
the geological structure of the Vepor Belt are represented
by the Silicicum and Hronicum. As in the case of the
Tatricum, the Veporicum is composed of a crystalline
basement and sedimentary cover sequences of the late
Paleozoic to Mesozoic age.
Veporicum crystalline basement
The crystalline basement of Veporicum is
predominantly composed of specific types of granitic
rocks (e.g. Vepor type, Sihla type, Hrončok granite,
Čierťaž granite, etc.) and various grade metamorphic
rocks (migmatites, gneisses, mica schists and phyllites),
which similarly as granites, are designated by local names
(Muráň orthogneiss, Klenovec gneiss, Brezina mica
schist, etc.). The Veporicum crystalline basement contains
relatively well-preserved relics of Hercynian structure. The
prevailing part of the crystalline basement is composed of
the Middle lithotectonic unit and, contrary to the Tatricum,
also the Lower lithotectonic unit with the lower grade
metamorphic rocks is present. The geological and tectonic
structure of the crystalline basement is very complicated.
It is mainly due to the considerable share of Hercynian
tectonics and its subsequent significant Alpine overprint.
This fact has led in the past to various interpretations of the
geological setting, reflecting different levels of knowledge
and geological information about the region. Differing
interpretations are still widely used today.
Vertical division of the Veporicum was based upon the
differing proportion of the individual types of the crystalline
rocks and sedimentary cover sequences (Zoubek,
1957). According to this principle the Veporicum was
divided (from the south to the north) to the Kohút Zone,
Kráľova hoľa Zone, Kraklová Zone and Ľubietová Zone
(Fig. 10). The individual zones were thrust above each other
or separated by the subvertical faults (e.g. Muráň-Divín
Fault, Pohorelá Line). Later on (Klinec, 1966, 1971), revealing
the Alpine nappe position of the crystalline complexes,
a horizontal division into the Kráľova hoľa and
Hron complexes became predominant. The Kráľová hoľa
Complex, composed predominantly of granitic rocks and
high-grade metamorphic rocks (migmatites, gneisses and
amphibolites) is lying in the nappe position above the
Hron Complex, consisting of lower grade metamorphic
rocks (mica schists, phyllites).
Veporicum sedimentary cover sequences
It is possible to divide the sedimentary sequences of
Veporicum into two distinct successions: the Southern
Veporicum sedimentary cover unit (Federáta Unit) and
the Northern Veporicum sedimentary cover unit (Veľký
bok Unit). The Federáta Unit is present in the Kohút and
Kráľova hoľa zones. It covers the southeastern margin of
the Veporicum and dips under the Gemericum along the
Lubeník thrust and at the same time it forms the substratum
of the Muráň Nappe (Silicicum) in the Muránska planina
Plateau. The contact zone with corresponding kinematics
(thrusting and subsequent unroofing) was proved also in the
eastern margin of the Gemer Belt – along the Margecany
part of the Lubeník-Margecany thrust zone, forming the
mutual contact of the Spiš-Gemer Ore Mts. and Čierna
hora Mts. (cf. Németh et al., 2012). The Veľký Bok Unit is
present mainly in the Kráľovohoľské Tatry (eastern part of
the Nízke Tatry Mts.).
The Federáta Unit represents complicated system of
thrust slices affected by the low-grade metamorphic over-
J. Hók et al.: Outline of the geology of Slovakia (W. Carpathians)
45
print. The Mesozoic sedimentary sequence ranges from
the Lower to Upper Triassic. However, also the Upper
Carboniferous and Permian rocks (Revúca Group) are its
integral part, often representing tectonically independent
thrust slice. The dolomites of the Late Triassic age (Norian)
represent the youngest lithostratigraphic member,
substituting the rocks of Carpathian Keuper, which represents
the most significant difference with regard to the
sedimentary sequence of the Northern Veporicum.
The Veľký bok Unit is characterized by close linkage
to the crystalline basement, lithostratigraphic and tectonic
affinity to the Fatricum and sedimentary sequence ranging
from Permian to the earliest Lower Cretaceous (Albian).
Tectonic position of the Veľký bok Unit, confined to the
Fatricum, similarly as paleogeographic location relates to
southern margin of former sedimentary basin of Fatricum.
During Alpine tectogenesis it was displaced, together with
the underlying Veporic crystalline basement above the
Tatricum. Its autochthonous position above the northern
zones of Veporicum (as the sedimentary cover) was
preserved. The Veľký bok Unit is exposed in the zone of
direct contact of Tatricum and Veporicum (so-called root
zones of the Krížna Nappe), for example in the Nízke Tatry
Mts. (the Veľký bok sequence), Branisko Mts., Čierna
hora Mts. and Tribeč Mts. (Veľké Pole sequence).
Fatricum
The Fatricum (other names: Krížna Nappe, Krížna
sequence/series) is an (allochthonous) nappe unit present
in the Core mountains Belt above the Tatricum and below
the Hronicum nappe. The Fatricum, unlike other thinskinned
nappes, is well identifiable from its root zones to
its foreland. The westernmost surface occurrences of the
Fig. 11. Simplified lithostratigraphic column of the Fatricum (modified after Biely et al., 1996a).
Mineralia Slovaca, 51 (2019)
46
Fatricum are known from the northern part of the Malé
Karpaty Mts., the easternmost ones are known from the
Humenské vrchy Mts. Hinterland (internal or southern)
zones of the nappe are exposed in the Kráľovohoľské
Tatry (eastern part of the Nízke Tatry Mts.), Starohorské
vrchy and Tribeč Mts. In this context, often an obsolete
term “Sub-Tatric” nappes for the Krížna and Choč Nappes
is also still in use (e.g. Jurewicz, 2005; Wolska et al.,
2016).
The former sedimentary basin of Fatricum was situated
south (internally) of the Tatricum approximately in the
area of present tectonically compressed boundary between
the Veporicum and Tatricum. Recently, e.g. the Veľký bok
Unit is situated in this area.
The rock complexes of Fatricum are composed almost
exclusively of sedimentary rocks because the crystalline
basement was separated during the nappe emplacement,
except the Veľký bok Unit in the Nízke Tatry Mts., Veľké
pole Unit in the Tribeč Mts. and tectonic slices of the Fatricum
in the Starohorské vrchy Mts.
Stratigraphic range of Fatricum is from the
Lower Triassic to earliest Upper Cretaceous (Albian–
Cenomanian). The older Permian rocks are known only
from few locations close to the root zone of the nappe.
Lithostratigraphy of the Fatricum is entirely similar to
that of the Tatricum cover (Figs. 8 and 11). Therefore,
characteristic phenomenon with repeating sedimentary
successions arises in the Core mountains Belt. The
Fatricum is however characterized by the presence of
thicker sequences of the Jurassic and Cretaceous age,
which are not so well developed in the Tatricum and
Hronicum. Another typical sign represents the locally
up to 500 m thick formation of Albian–Cenomanian
flysch known as the Poruba Formation, which forms the
uppermost and at the same time the youngest member of
the Fatricum sedimentary sequence. It is usually overlied
by the Hronicum.
The Fatricum is usually tectonically divided into two
units, distinguished mainly by the lithofacial character of
the Jurassic part of the sedimentary sequence.
The Zliechov Unit, sometimes referred to as the Krížna
Unit s.s. represents deep-water sequence. It is characterized
by the presence of the Jurassic spotted limestones
and marlstones (Allgäu Formation) and radiolarites (Ždiar
Fm.). It represents the spatially dominant part of the Fatricum,
usually located above the Vysoká Unit.
The Vysoká Unit and its equivalents (Beckov, Belá,
Ďurčiná and Iľanovo units) represent shallow-water sequence
characterized by the presence of Jurassic crinoidal
and sandy-crinoidal limestones (Hierlatz Formation).
Fig. 12. Schematic cross-section showing position of the Triassic sediments arranged in partial nappes system across the sedimentary
basin of the Hronicum (according to Havrila, 2011, simplified).
J. Hók et al.: Outline of the geology of Slovakia (W. Carpathians)
47
Fig. 13. Simplified lithostratigraphic
column of the Hronicum
(modified after Biely et al., 1996a).
Fatricum shallow-water units are spatially less significant
than in the Zliechov Unit and are usually located in its
footwall.
Hronicum
The Hronicum (syn. Choč nappe, formerly Upper
Sub-Tatric nappe) represents structurally the highest nappe
in the Middle Group of Nappes located above the Fatricum
and Veporicum. Occurrences of the Hronicum are
limited to the Core mountains and Vepor belts. It crops out
in the Malé Karpaty Mts., Považský Inovec Mts., Tribeč
Mts., Strážovské vrchy Mts., Žiar Mts., Malá Fatra Mts.,
Chočské vrchy Mts., Veľká Fatra Mts., Vysoké Tatry Mts.,
Nízke Tatry Mts., Branisko Mts. and Čierna hora Mts.
Presence of the Hronicum was proven in deep boreholes
of the northeastern part of the Slovak sector of the Vienna
Basin under the sediments of the Neogene age. In several
areas of the internal Western Carpathians, the Hronicum is
tectonically imbricated into the system of partial nappes
(Fig. 12).
Hronicum rock complexes stratigraphically range from
Late Carboniferous to Early Cretaceous. Jurassic and Cretaceous
sediments are, however, eroded and occur only
in the Brezovské Karpaty and Čachtické Karpaty Mts.,
Strážovské vrchy Mts. and on the northern slopes of the
Nízke Tatry Mts.
Characteristic feature of the Hronicum is the presence
of Late Carboniferous and Permian volcano-sedimentary
formations included in the Ipoltica Group, formerly
known also as the Melaphyre Series (Vozárová & Vozár,
1979). It forms basal part of the nappe that is present predominantly
across the more internal (southern) zones of
the Hronicum occurrence. In the north, the Hronicum sequence
usually starts with the Triassic carbonates.
Another characteristic feature is the alteration of
shallow water and deep water lithofacies during the Middle
Mineralia Slovaca, 51 (2019)
48
Triassic (Fig. 12). The shallow water, reefal and lagoonal
facies are represented by Wetterstein limestones and
dolomites, which build Mojtín-Harmanec and Čierny Váh
carbonate platforms. The deep-water facies are represented
by Zámostie, Reifling and Schreyeralm limestones,
forming Dobrá Voda and Biely Váh intra-platform basins.
The Upper Triassic of Hronicum is characterized by
levelling of basins and carbonate platforms and deposition
of the Lunz Formation (Fig. 13), which thickness is much
greater above the regions with basinal facies (Dobrá Voda
and Biely Váh) than above the former platform areas. The
Lunz Beds are overlain by thick Main Dolomite (Norian)
- another characteristic and widespread lithostratigraphic
member of the Hronicum.
Structuralization of the Hronicum occurred during the
early Cretaceous and continued during the late Cretaceous
and Paleocene, as it is confirmed by the boreholes in the
Vienna Basin (boreholes of the Lakšárska Nová Ves series).
The Triassic lithostratigraphy of the Hronic nappes
system is in most of members similar to the Tirolic and
Bajuvaric nappe system in the Northern Calcareous Alps
(Janoschek & Matura, 1980; Piller et al., 2004).
Upper Group of Nappes
The Upper Group of Nappes is represented by the tectonic
units of Gemericum (low grade metamorphic rocks
and cover sequences), Meliaticum and Turnaicum nappes,
that are occurring in the Gemer Belt and Silicicum nappe
which is found in Vepor and Gemer belts (Figs. 1 and 14).
The tectonic units of the Upper Group of Nappes occur in
regions of Volovské vrchy Mts., Slovenský kras Plateau,
Spišsko-gemerský kras Plateau (Muránska planina Plateau
and Slovenský raj Mts.) and eastern part of the Revúcka
vrchovina Mts. The Upper Group of Nappes is tectonically
superimposed above the Middle Group of Nappes, in particularly
over the Veporicum unit. It represents the highest
structural element of the Alpine structure of the Internal
Western Carpathians, being structuralized already during
the Jurassic–Early Cretaceous transition (Fig. 2).
Gemericum
The Gemericum forms an extensive anticlinorium
(Fig. 1) of the Volovské vrchy Mts. It differs from the rest
of the W. Carpathian main tectonic units due to its rock
composition, age and metamorphism (Grecula, 1982;
Vozárová & Vozár, 1988; Vozárová, 1993). In contrast
to the Tatricum and Veporicum the Gemeric Hercynian
(Variscan) basement is on the surface composed by the
low-grade metamorphic rocks mostly of Early Paleozoic
age, with locally present Permian granitic rocks (Radvanec
et al., 2009), volumetrically representing an important
part of the tectonic unit according to the geophysical
investigation (Šefara et al., 2017). Granitic rocks were
during Alpine tectogenesis thrust northward as rigid blocks
together with their surrounding lithology. The granites
reach surface in Betliar, Hnilec, Poproč and Zlatá Idka
localities.The Gemeric basement consists of three principal
groups differing in lithology and metamorphic grade. The
amphibolite facies metamorphic conditions are reported
from the Klátov Group (Faryad, 1990), representing
Variscan dismembered metaophiolite suite (Radvanec et
al., 2017) and recently occurring in tectonic slices and
fragments along the eastern and northern boundary of the
low-grade Early Paleozoic complexes of Gemericum. The
Fig. 14. Position of the Upper Group of Nappes (based on Hók et al., 2014).
J. Hók et al.: Outline of the geology of Slovakia (W. Carpathians)
49
Rakovec Group (formerly also “Phyllite-diabase Series”)
is in contrast composed of mafic rocks and their derivatives,
mostly metabasalts, tuffs and tuffites, present mainly in the
northern Gemericum (Fig. 15). Other sedimentary rocks are
less common (Ivan, 1994). The age of the Rakovec Group is
probably Devonian to Early Carboniferous, as the overlying
Late Carboniferous sediments contain clasts of Rakovec
Group rocks. Basalts are related to sub-marine volcanism
and the occurrence of pillow-lavas was interpreted by
Hovorka et al. (1988). According to other interpretation
(Radvanec & Németh, 2018) some of them represent
exhumed metagabbros, present along the axis of Variscan
suture zone, which is evidenced also by structural and
petrological findings, as well as occurrences of exhumed
blocks of Variscan ultra-high pressure metamorphic
rocks. The suture character of Rakovec Group is a product
of collisional closure of the basin in Westphalian
(Pennsylvanian: Kasimovian; Late Carboniferous; Németh,
2002; Radvanec & Németh, 2018). The Gelnica Group
builds a substantial part of the Gemericum (Fig. 15)
and morphologically occupies vast part of the Volovské
vrchy Mts. The lower part of this unit consists of a thick
turbiditic sequence of Ordovician-Early Devonian age
with interbeds of bimodal volcanic rocks, gradually
passing into volcanosedimentary sequence accompanied
by products of massive rhyolite-dacite volcanism of
the Late Devonian age (Grecula, 1982; Ivanička et al.,
1989; Grecula & Kobulský, eds., 2011). On the basis of
lithofacial and lithostratigraphic analysis, three formations
were defined within the Gelnica Group from the bottom
upwards: the Vlachovo Fm., Bystrý potok Fm., and Drnava
Fm. (Ivanička et al., 1989). According to lithostratigraphy
by Grecula (1982 and following works), reflecting the
revealed Early Paleozoic riftogenesis within the pre-Hercynian
(pre-Variscan) continental crust, the Betliar
Fm., Smolník Fm. and Hnilec Fm. were distinguished.
More recent concept divides the Gemericum according
to character of the sedimentary cover sequences into
Northern Gemericum and Southern Gemericum (Vozárová
& Vozár, 1988).
The Northern Gemericum is composed of Rakovec
and Klátov groups. Their sedimentary cover is composed
of numerous formations with their specific evolution,
position and age. The Early Carboniferous sequences are
represented by the Ochtiná Group of Gemericum with
Črmeľ Formation in its eastern side (Vozárová, 1996).
Fig. 15. Simplified tectonic scheme of the Gemericum and surroundings (modified after Hók et al., 2001).
Mineralia Slovaca, 51 (2019)
50
They both represent volcano-sedimentary units with
important deposits of magnesite (so called “Magnesitebearing
Carboniferous”). The cover Permian rocks of the
Krompachy Group are typical by the presence of coarsegrained
conglomerate material, sandstones and variegated
shales (Knola and Petrova hora fms.). Conglomerate
composition suggests that the source area was in the former
Gemericum. The late Permian–early Triassic overlying
sequences were deposited in lagoonal environment –
evaporites and shales of the Novoveská Huta Fm. The
Southern Gemericum is composed of Gelnica Group
rocks and Štós Fm. The Štós Formation (Fig. 15) is
mostly represented by the metamorphosed sandstones,
phyllites (formerly probably shales), rarely also bodies of
metabasalts. The pre-Permian age of the Štós Fm. is proved
by geological data and the occurrences of the Štós Fm.
rock fragments in Early Permian conglomerates (Vozárová
et al., 2014). The cover of the Southern Gemericum is
represented by the Gočaltovo Group.
Besides two generations of thrust systems (Variscan
and Alpine), double unroofings (Permian and Late Cretacesous;
Németh et al., 2016), the spectacular tectonic
structure, overprinting the pre-Mesozoic metamorphic
fabric of the Gelnica Group as well as in its NE margin
also Rakovec Group, is the Gemericum Cleavage Fan.
The cleavage forms an asymmetric positive fan structure
developed transversally across the entire length of the
Gemeric unit (Lexa et al., 2003). As recent investigations
manifest, this cleavage fan trending NE-SW is a product
of sinistral transpressional shearing (Transgemeric shear
zone), and representing a conjugate system to dextral shear
zones trending NW-SE (Grecula et al., 1990; Németh et
al., 2012, Fig. 3 ibid).
Bôrka Nappe
The Bôrka Nappe was formerly considered as a part of
Meliaticum. At present it is distinguished as a separate tectonic
unit (however, not without doubts). It includes rock
sequences of Permian to Jurassic age characterized mainly
by the subduction-type higher metamorphic overprint
(HP-LT) in comparison to other surrounding tectonic units.
The Bôrka Nappe rock complexes are typical with the crystalline
limestones (marbles) with volcanogenic admixture
(Dúbrava Fm.) with evidences of blueschists facies metamorphism
(Mello et al., 1998).
Meliaticum
The Meliaticum is a tectonic unit (mélange) of nappe
character, known also from the territory ofAustria (Kozur &
Mostler, 1992). It occurs in relics emerging from below the
Turnaicum and Silicicum nappes in the present-day surface
(Fig. 15). Occurrences of Meliaticum are represented by the
tectonic mélange of the Triassic carbonates, radiolarites and
volcanic rocks, found within the grey shales and radiolarite
beds of Jurassic age (Mock et al., 1998). Oceanic domain
of former Meliaticum was closed during late Jurassic
and early Cretaceous. Subduction of the oceanic crust
and gradual closure of the sedimentary basin resulted in
the north-vergent tectonic transport of rock complexes,
originally deposited at the southern margin of this oceanic
realm. According to present knowledge, north-vergently
displaced rock complexes were later transformed into the
Turnaicum and Silicicum nappes. Simultanously, the rock
sequences of the future Bôrka Nappe, probably located
between the Gemericum and Meliaticum, were pulled
into the subduction zone. The detachment of Meliaticum,
Turnaicum and Silicicum started the shortening of Internal
Western Carpathians while preserving the polarity of
the tectonic transport from the south (from the inside) to
the north during the Early Cretaceous (the Upper Group
of Nappes) to the Late Cretaceous (the Lower Group of
Nappes).
Turnaicum
The Turnaicum is tectonic unit of nappe character
exposed from below the Silicicum (Lačný et al., 2016). It
occurs in the southern part of the Gemer Belt, mainly in the
Slovenský kras Mts. The Late Carboniferous-Late Triassic
sedimentary sequence of Turnaicum is characterized by
metamorphic overprint and deep-water Triassic carbonate
facies, distinguishing it from the Silicicum. The most
characteristic member are the Upper Triassic (Carnian–
Norian) grey nodular limestones (Pötschen Limestone)
and grey shales with intercalations of volcanic rocks and
sandstones of Middle Triassic age (Dvorníky Formation).
Silicicum
The Silicicum is structurally the highest tectonic unit
of the Alpine nappe structure of the Internal Western
Carpathians (Mello, 1979). It is exposed as relatively flatlying
nappe body in the Slovenský kras Mts., Slovenský
raj Mts., Galmus and Muránska planina Mts. Similarly, as
the Hronicum unit, also Silicicum was formerly divided
into several partial nappes (the Silica, Muráň and Besník
nappes). Now they are considered as erosional relics of
one larger nappe – Silicicum (often called as the Silica
Nappe sensu lato). Sedimentary sequence of Silicicum
starts in uppermost Permian or lowermost Triassic and
continues up to Upper Jurassic (Callovian–Oxfordian).
The Lower Triassic has similar development as in the
Turnaicum and is represented by the sandstones and
shales (Fig. 16). Major part of the Silicicum is formed
by the Middle–Upper Triassic shallow-water carbonates
(mainly Wetterstein Limestones). The sparsely preserved
Jurassic deposits form the youngest part of sedimentary
sequence and characterize the deeper water environment.
The vergence or sense of nappe displacement of Silicicum
is still a matter of debate. Former concept presumed that
Silicicum was transported together with the Hronicum
from the present-day Margecany-Lubeník zone, whereby
the Hronicum was transported to the north and Silicicum
to the south (Mišík et al., 1985). Present model prefers an
J. Hók et al.: Outline of the geology of Slovakia (W. Carpathians)
51
interpretation that the tectonic transport of the Silicicum
was northward from the South Gemeric zone (Plašienka,
2018). Silicicum is overlain by the locally preserved Upper
Cretaceous (“Senonian”) Gosau type sediments. Principal
Triassic lithostratigraphic members of the Silicicum are
resembling Juvavic nappe system.
Zemplinicum
Zemplinicum represents a tectonic unit occurring in
the Zemplínske vrchy Mts. in the southeastern Slovakia
(Slávik, 1976; Fig. 1). Its tectonic assignment is not
satisfactorily resolved (Vozárová & Vozár, 1988; Grecula
& Együd, 1977; Plašienka et al., 1997). The Zemplinicum
is composed of high-grade Hercynian basement overlain
by continental sediments of Carboniferous with coal
seams and by Permian continental clastic red beds with
acid volcanics. Overlying formations are represented by
Lower Triassic quartzites and Middle Triassic carbonates.
Correlation of the Zemplinicum with surrounding units
is intricate, due to thick Neogene sedimentary cover as
well as the nature of the East Slovak Basin pre-Neogene
basement. Deep boreholes reaching the pre-Neogene
basement suggest the presence of metamorphosed Jurassic
to Paleogene succession (so called Iňačovce-Kričevo
Unit). The Iňačovce-Kričevo Unit was correlated with the
Belice Unit of the Považský Inovec Mts. (i.e. Vahicum,
Plašienka et al., 1995) and both were together considered
as equivalent of the Penninicum. Later (Plašienka &
Soták, 2015), there was inferred that the Iňačovce-Kričevo
and related units continue from the subsurface of the East
Slovak Basin to the Pannonian Basin basement along the
Mid-Hungarian fault zone (Sava-Szolnok Belt) to the
Dinaridic Sava Zone (see also Schmid et al., 2008). Due
to the presence of the Iňačovce-Kričevo Unit, the tectonic
affiliation of the Zemplinicum becomes even the more
obscure and complicated.
Post-nappe stacking formations
of the Western Carpathians
All rock formations of the Late Cretaceous (Coniacian–Maastrichtian)
and Cenozoic age are in the Internal
Western Carpathians traditionally considered as the “postnappe
stacking” formations. They are unconformably and
transgressively overlying the nappe structures. Later research,
however, points to fact that mainly in the external
parts of the Internal Western Carpathians the sediments
of Late Cretaceous and Paleogene age are folded together
with their substratum (Hók et al., 2016; Pelech et al., 2017;
Plašienka, 2018). This means that the rock complexes of
the Middle Group of Nappes in this part of the Western
Fig. 16. Simplified lithostratigraphic
colum of the Silicicum
(modified after Biely et
al., 1996a and Rakús & Sýkora,
2001).
Mineralia Slovaca, 51 (2019)
52
Carpathians were displaced in the late Cretaceous–Eocene
period, in contrast to the Upper Group of Nappes,
where the Late Cretaceous sediments cover discordantly
and transgressively their basement, represented by the
Silicic nappes. The outer edge of the Internal Western
Carpathian block was during the early Miocene affected
by the back-thrusting (south-vergent), which is related to
the Neo-Alpine phase of mountain building (e.g. Pelech &
Olšavský, 2018).
Upper Cretaceous (“Senonian”) sediments (Conia-
cian-Maastrichtian)
The Upper Cretaceous sediments were preserved
only sporadically on few localities (the Miglinc Valley
west of Moldava nad Bodvou; Dobšinská ľadová jaskyňa
Cave; Šumiac; Myjavská pahorkatina Upland; Brezovské
Karpaty and Čachtické Karpaty Mts.). Deep drillings
confirmed the presence of Upper Cretaceous rocks also
in the area of Krupina and Rimavská Sobota (Čierna
Lúka Fm., Vass et al., 2001) in Central Slovakia and
from the pre-Neogene basement of the Vienna Basin.
Oldest (lowermost) parts of these sedimentary sequences,
correlated with Gosau Group, were deposited mostly in
freshwater environment. The higher parts are represented
by marine, often deep-water sediments.
The Upper Cretaceous rock occurrences could be divided
into two groups. The first one is covering solely the
Silicic nappes, representing the highest structural element
of the Upper Group of Nappes (Miglinc Valley; Dobšinská
ľadová jaskyňa Cave; Šumiac and Čierna Lúka Fm.
occurrences). Among them, the most widespread and
lithologically most complete are the occurrences in the
wider area of the Dobšinská ľadová jaskyňa Cave, which
are represented by two lithologically different formations.
The “lower formation” of ?early Santonian to early Campanian
age contains freshwater limestones and brown-grey
to grey shales with coal interbeds. It was formed in the
freshwater to the brackish environment, with its highest
parts being formed in the marine environment. The “upper
formation” of probably Maastrichtian to Paleocene age is
represented by variegated conglomerates with interbeds of
red and green shales with planktonic foraminifers pointing
to marine environment (Mello et al., 2000; Pipík et al.,
2009; Hók & Littva, 2018).
The second group of the Upper Cretaceous rock
occurrences is located atop of Hronicum, which represents
highest structural element of the Upper Group of Nappes
(Myjavská pahorkatina Upland, Brezovské Karpaty and
Čachtické Karpaty Mts. and pre-Neogene basement of
the Vienna Basin). The most widespread occurrences
are located in the Myjavská pahorkatina Upland and
are represented by the Brezová Group (Coniacian –
Maastrichtian, Salaj et al., 1987). Lower part of the
Brezová Group is due to its lithological and facial content
similar to the Upper Cretaceous rocks of the Eastern
Alps (Wagreich & Marschalko, 1995). The basal part is
composed of conglomerates and sandstones. The upper
part, which is clearly of marine origin is composed of
“flysch-like” sediments, red marlstones and limestones.
The occurrences of the Brezová Group rocks continue
also into the basement of the Vienna Basin Neogene
sedimentary infill.
Fig. 17. Position of the Paleogene sediments in the Internal Western Carpathians (based on Hók et al., 2014).
J. Hók et al.: Outline of the geology of Slovakia (W. Carpathians)
53
Paleogene sediments
The Paleogene sediments (Fig. 17) are divided into
several lithostratigraphic (lithofacial) groups which are
at the same time localized in the particular areas: Central
Carpathian Paleogene Basin (or Podtatranská Group sensu
Gross et al., 1984; Gross, 2008), Myjava-Hričov Group,
Malé Karpaty Group and so-called Buda Paleogene (North
Hungarian Paleogene Basin). Paleogene sediments are deposited
transgressively and discordantly above pre-Cenozoic
rocks. During the early Paleogene (Paleocene) most
of the Internal Western Carpathians territory was probably
sub-aerially exposed land. The Paleocene sediments are
mostly located only along the Pieniny Klippen Belt (Myjava-Hričov
Group).
Podtatranská Group
The Podtatranská Group (sensu Gross et al., 1984;
also termed as the Inner Carpathain Paleogene or fill
of Central Carpathian Paleogene Basin) represents
prevailing part of the Paleogene rocks in the Internal
Western Carpathians (Fig. 17). Sediments of Podtatranská
Group morphologically form the mountainous regions
of Skorušinské vrchy, Spišská Magura, Levočské vrchy,
Bachureň and Šarišská vrchovina, but mainly the Tertiary
intramountain basins of Žilinská kotlina, Turčianska
kotlina, Hornonitrianska kotlina, Podtatranská kotlina,
Hornádska kotlina and Horehronské podolie. Stratigraphic
range of the Podtatranská Group sediments is from
Eocene to Oligocene (in the Hornonitrianska kotlina
Basin up to early Miocene). The rock sequence starts with
transgressive basal breccias and conglomerates (Borové
Fm.). The transgression has progressed generally from
W to E and was diachronous in time. The basal formation
is overlain by the packet of claystones (Huty Fm.) and
typical mass transport deposits (“flysch” sandstones and
claystones, Zuberec Fm.). The sedimentary sequence
was terminated by the deposition of predominantly sandy
gravity flow deposits (Biely Potok Fm.).
Malé Karpaty Group
The Malé Karpaty Group represents the westernmost
occurrence of the Paleogene sediments within the Western
Carpathians (Fig. 17). The rock sequence represents only
a relic of a larger basin transgressively and discordantly
overlying various litostratigraphic units of the Hronicum
(Buček in Polák et al., 2012). Age of the Malé Karpaty
Group sediments – conglomerates, breccia, sandstones
and claystones – is early to middle Eocene, though the
sedimentation continued after hiatus in the early Oligocene.
Sediments differ from those in the Podtatranská Group.
Myjava-Hričov Group
The Myjava-Hričov Group contains a lithologically
diverse “flysch”-type rock sequence, mainly sandstones,
claystones, limestones and conglomerates (Súľov Conglomerates).
It is located along the inner edge of the
western part of the Pieniny Klippen Belt (Fig. 17). The
sediments are predominantly transgressively overlying its
footwall, manifesting hiatus during the early Paleocene.
However, the Paleocene sediments of the Polianka Fm.
were exceptionally deposited continuously since Late Cretaceous.
The stratigraphic record of the Myjava-Hričov
Group ends in the late Eocene (Buček in Mello et al., 2011;
Plašienka & Soták, 2015).
Fig. 18. Occurrence of Neogene sediments and volcanites (based on Hók et al., 2014).
Mineralia Slovaca, 51 (2019)
54
Buda Paleogene
The Buda Paleogene sequence (late Eocene–early
Oligocene) occurs only in southern Slovakia (mainly in
the area of the Štúrovo town and the South Slovak Basin).
In the region of Štúrovo the Buda Paleogene sediments are
not exposed on the surface but were revealed by boreholes.
The Buda Paleogene sequence is not an integral part of the
W. Carpathians. Overlying the tectonic units of Hungarian
Transdanubian range, they are lithofacially closer to units
of Southern Alps. The sediments of the Buda Paleogene
are characterized by the alternation of the brackish (mixed
marine and freshwater environments) and the marine
sedimentation, and in particular the occurrence of the coal
seams (Vass, 2002).
Neogene sediments
The Neogene sedimentary basins and intermontane
depressions (in Slovak usually termed kotlina; Fig.
18), together with the Core mountains represent the
most characteristic morpho-tectonic features of the W.
Carpathians. Regarding the common origin and evolution,
the Neogene sedimentary basins cannot be separated from
Carpathian Neogene volcanic province (Konečný et al.,
2002) occurring in Central and Eastern Slovakia, and at
the same time, they must be understood in the context of
the whole Pannonian Basin System and wider Paratethys
region (Royden & Horváth, 1988; Kováč, 2000; Haas et
al., 2013).
The Neogene basins in the Slovak territory are
represented by complex and extensive Vienna, Danube,
South Slovak and East Slovak (Transcarpathian) basins.
The intramontane depressions have usually thinner and
structurally less complicated Neogene infill and are often
situated between the (Core) mountains. The northern
embayments of the Danube Basin – the Blatné, Rišňovce
and Komjatice depressions (formerly known as the
Piešťany, Topoľčany and Zlaté Moravce embayments) are
included among the intermontane depressions since their
evolution is closely related to surrounding mountains. The
smaller Neogene intermontane basins include Trenčín,
Ilava, Orava, Bánovce, Horná Nitra, Turiec, Žiar, Zvolen
and Rožňava basins. The intermontane depressions are
bounded by normal faults, delimiting them from the
surrounding areas. The sediment thickness often reaches
several kilometers and Neogene rocks unconformably
and transgressively overlie dismembered basement of
various ages and tectonic affiliation. The Neogene rocks
are characterized by great diversity and many local names
(e.g. Vass, 2002, Fig. 19).
The evolution of the Neogene basins and intermontane
depressions was coeval with subduction-accretion
processes in the Outer Western Carpathians. Since the
Oligocene, the subduction and collision of the Flysch
Belt with Bohemian Massif and North European platform
took place. The subduction was diachronous and proceeded
continually from the west (Eggenburgian) to the east
(end of Neogene). Gradual consumption of the Flysch
Belt basement resulted in contraction of the area between
fixed and consolidated European Platform and the Internal
Western Carpathian (ALCAPA) block. The Internal Western
Carpathian block was due to the subduction roll-back
effect generally moving to the north and rotated counter
clockwise at the same time. The rotation was controlled
by actually active segments of subduction (Jiříček, 1979;
Márton et al., 2016). The aforementioned processes in the
Internal W. Carpathian regions resulted in stress regime
that enabled strike-slips and normal faulting. The Neogene
evolution of W. Carpathian sedimentary basins can be divided
into several stages (Kováč et al., 2018, Fig. 19):
Pre-rift stage of Early Miocene (Eggenburgian–early
Badenian) can be characterized by transtensional regime.
Early Miocene marine sediments (e.g. Čausa, Bánovce,
Lakšárska Nová Ves and Rakša fms.) were deposited in
the northern part of the Danube Basin (Blatné, Bánovce,
Horná Nitra and Turiec depressions), as well as in the
Vienna, East Slovak and South Slovak basins.
Syn-rift stage of the middle Miocene (Badenian–Sarmatian)
is characterized by the marine sedimentation and
regional extension that reached maximum during this time
in the whole Internal W. Carpathians. The onset of the main
rift phase is marked by regional unconformity, where the
middle Miocene sediments often overlap the pre-Cenozoic
basement. Considerable amount of sediments has accumulated
in relatively short time (nearly 3000 m of sediments
during Badenian in the Blatné Depression). Extension to
transtension was diachronously moving to the SE (Hók et
al., 2016). Typical horst and graben structure of the Core
mountains belt was formed during this stage and accompanied
by considerable tilting of several hanging wall blocks.
Clays, marls and sandstone at the beginning of marine environment
(e.g. Špačince and Báhoň fms.) were later replaced
by deltaic to brackish sedimentation (Vráble Fm.).
This stage was terminated by regional unconformity at the
end of Sarmatian.
Post-rift stage represented the thermal collapse of the
Pannonian Basin lithosphere. It was accompanied by wide
rift normal faulting, which dominated in the evolution of
the sedimentary basins during the late Miocene (Pannonian)
to Quaternary. Main depocenters were located in
Rišňovce, Komjatice and Gabčíkovo depressions. The
sedimentary sequences were changing from brackish to
freshwater (Ivanka Fm.), deltaic (Beladice Fm.) to alluvial
sedimentation (Volkovce Fm. and Kolárovo Fm.). Important
unconformity and hiatus occurred during the Pontian–
Dacian due to basin inversion.
Neogene‒Quaternary volcanic rocks
The Neogene volcanic activity was geotectonically
tightly bound to the processes of subduction in the External
Western Carpathians (Konečný et al., 2002). The
petrographic and geochemical character of volcanic rocks
J. Hók et al.: Outline of the geology of Slovakia (W. Carpathians)
55
is directly limited by the nature of the subduced plate as
well as the upper mantle (Biely et al., 1996b). Regarding
the geotectonic evolution, succession of volcanotectonic
events, different petrological and volcanological types
and forms, it is not possible to separate Neogene and
Quaternary volcanic activity, having following individual
stages (Lexa et al., 1993):
Acid calc-alkaline areal volcanism is represented
mainly by rhyolites, rhyodacites and their products of
two periods: (1) The early Miocene (Eggenburgian–
early Badenian) restricted only to marginal facies – tuffs,
recorded in the South Slovak basin and the East Slovak
basin. Geodynamically, they can be parallelized with
the pre-rift stage of the Neogene extension. (2) The
late Miocene (Sarmatian–Panonian) volcanism can be
parallelized with processes of the post-rift stage. Volcanic
products are more widespread and occur together with
andesite volcanoes, especially in the Central Slovakia
region.
Intermediate calc-alkaline areal volcanism represented
mainly by the middle Miocene (Badenian–
Sarmatian) granodiorites, andesites, dacites and their
volcaniclastic products. It represents the lowest part of
the large Štiavnica, Javorie and Poľana stratovolcanoes.
Geodynamically, they can be parallelized to the syn-rift
stage (maximum back-arc extension).
Intermediate calc-alkaline arc volcanism mainly of
basaltic andesites, rare dacites and their products is documented
in particular during the middle Miocene (Sarmatian).
The occurrence is mainly connected to the region
of Eastern Slovakia (the volcanoes of Slánske vrchy Hills
and Vihorlatské vrchy Mts.). Petrological character of
rocks reflects the processes of active subduction.
Alkali basalt volcanism (besides basalts also nepheline
basanite) is found only in the central Slovak region
– predominantly in the Cerová vrchovina Upland and represents
the final stage of late Miocene–Quaternary volcanic
activity. The youngest products (nepheline basanites)
with documented age of 100 000–140 000 years BP, were
found near Nová Baňa (Putikov vŕšok; Šimon & Maglay,
2005).
Fig. 19. Lithostratigraphy of the Slovak part of the Danube Basin (based on Vass, 2002, and Kováč et al., 2018).
Mineralia Slovaca, 51 (2019)
56
Summary
The territory of Slovakia is formed by the north convexbent
arch of theWestern Carpathian mountain range and the
northern margin of the Pannonian Basin. The geological/
tectonic structure of the W. Carpathians was formed by the
north-vergent Alpine orogenic processes. The deformation
advanced generally from internal (southern) to the external
(northern) parts of the present-day arc. The Internal W.
Carpathians (IWECA) were tectonically transformed to
the present structure during the Cretaceous period and the
External W. Carpathians (EWECA) during the Neogene
period. The main tectonic units are from north to south and
from bottom to top as follows: The Flysch Belt composed
of Krosno and Magura nappe systems. The border between
the EWECA and IWECA is the Klippen Belt containing
the Oravic tectonic units. IWECA is built by the Lower,
Middle and the Upper Group of Nappes. The Vahicum and
Tatricum tectonic units form the Lower Group of Nappes.
The Veporicum, Fatricum and Hronicum are present in
the Middle Group of Nappes and finally the Gemericum,
Meliaticum, Turnaicum and Silicicum represent the
Upper Group of Nappes. The Tatricum, Veporicum and
Gemericum can be considered as the thick-skinned
units involving the Paleozoic crystalline basement.
Other tectonic units represent cover nappes containing
mostly Mesozoic carbonate sediments. Rock formations
of the Late Cretaceous (Coniacian–Maastrichtian) and
Cenozoic age are in the IWECA traditionally considered
as the “post-nappe stacking”, however, in the external
parts of the IWECA the sediments of late Cretaceous and
Paleogene age are tectonized together with their basement.
The most characteristic Cenozoic elements in the IWECA
include: (1) the Paleogene sediments of the Podtatranská
Group transgressively overlapping IWECA nappes and
reaching thickness of several thousand m in the central and
eastern Slovakia; (2) horst and graben system of the Core
mountains, representing the transitional zone between
the IWECA and northern part of the Miocene Danube/
Pannonian Basin; (3) Miocene to Pliocene rhyolitic,
andesitic and later basaltic volcanism (Neovolcanism)
particularly extensive in central and eastern Slovakia.
Acknowledgement
The work was financially supported by the VEGA
grant No. 1/0115/18and the Slovak Research and
Development Agency under the contracts No. APVV-17-0170,
APVV‒16‒0121 and APVV‒16‒0146. Authors are
thankful for constructive comments and suggestions of
Ján Madarás and anonymous reviewer, who improved the
quality of the paper.
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Prehľad geologickej stavby Slovenska
Územie Slovenska tvorí pásmové pohorie Západných
Karpát vyklenuté na sever a severný okraj Panónskej nížiny
(obr.1).GeologickástavbaZápadnýchKarpátjevýsledkom
alpínskej orogenézy, pričom deformácia postupovala
od vnútorných častí dnešného oblúka smerom na sever.
Vnútorné (interné) Západné Karpaty (IZK) vznikali
hlavne v období kriedy a Vonkajšie (externé) Západné
Karpaty (EZK) v období neogénu (obr. 2). Za hlavné
tektonické jednotky EZK môžeme zo severu na juh a zdola
nahor považovať flyšové pásmo tvorené krosnianskym
a magurským systémom príkrovov a štruktúru bradlového
pásma, ktorá je zároveň deliacim elementom medzi EZK
a IZK(obr.1).VrámciIZKsúprítomnétektonickéjednotky
spodnej skupiny príkrovov (váhikum a tatrikum), strednej
skupiny príkrovov (veporikum, fatrikum a hronikum)
a vrchnej skupiny príkrovov (gemerikum, meliatikum,
turnaikum a silicikum). Tatrikum, veporikum a gemerikum
vzhľadom na prítomnosť paleozoického kryštalinického
podložia sa považujú za celokôrové tektonické jednotky.
Ostatné tektonické jednotky tvoria pripovrchové príkrovy
(obr. 2). Horninové súbory vrchnej kriedy (koňak ‒
mástricht) a kenozoika sa v rámci IZK tradične považujú
za popríkrovové útvary, no pri vonkajšom okraji IZK
sú často zvrásnené spoločne so svojím podložím (obr.
2). Medzi charakteristické popríkrovové štruktúry IZK
patria: 1. paleogénne sedimenty podtatranskej skupiny,
transgresívne prekrývajúce príkrovy IZK a dosahujúce vo
východnej časti územie hrúbku niekoľko tisíc metrov (obr.
17); 2. štruktúry horských chrbtov a depresií jadrových
pohorí predstavujúce prechodnú zónu medzi IZK
a severnou časťou Podunajskej, resp. Panónskej panvy
(obr. 7 a  18); 3. miocénny až kvartérny vulkanizmus,
obzvlášť rozsiahly na strednom a východnom Slovensku
(obr. 18).
	 Doručené / Received:	 30. 4. 2019
	 Prijaté na publikovanie / Accepted:	 4. 6. 2019