At the end of this lesson, student will be able to:

1. Define and distinguish between confounding and effect modification in epidemiological studies.
2. Identify common confounders and understand their impact on study outcomes.
3. Explain the criteria for a variable to be considered a confounder and how it affects causal interpretations.
4. Describe methods for addressing confounding at both the design (e.g., randomization, restriction, matching) and analysis stages (e.g., stratification, adjustment, standardization).
5. Interpret examples of effect modification, including interaction between multiple exposures and their joint effects on health outcomes.